View All Pages

Cervical Cancer - Introduction

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find some basic information about cervical cancer and the parts of the body it may affect. This is the first page of Cancer.Net’s Guide to Cervical Cancer. Use the menu to see other pages. Think of that menu as a roadmap for this entire guide.

About the cervix

The cervix is the lower, narrow part of the uterus in the female reproductive system. The uterus holds a growing fetus during pregnancy. The cervix connects the lower part of the uterus to the vagina and, with the vagina, forms the birth canal.

This illustration shows a frontal and sagittal (side) view of a woman’s reproductive system. The frontal section shows the fallopian tubes, 2 small ducts that link the 2 ovaries (1 on each side) to the hollow, pear-shaped uterus. The lower, narrow part of the uterus is called the cervix, which leads to the vagina. The uterus is located in the pelvis, between the bladder and rectum, and the vagina is located behind the urethra, which connects to the bladder. Copyright 2003 American Society of Clinical Oncology. Robert Morreale/Visual Explanations, LLC.

About abnormal cells in the cervix that can become cancer

Cervical cancer begins when healthy cells on the surface of the cervix change or become infected with human papillomavirus (HPV) and grow out of control, forming a mass called a tumor. Long-term infection of HPV on the cervix can result in cancer, leading to a mass or tumor on the cervix. A tumor can be cancerous or benign. A cancerous tumor is malignant, meaning it can spread to other parts of the body. A benign tumor means the tumor will not spread.

At first, the changes in a cell are abnormal, not cancerous, and are sometimes called "atypical cells." Researchers believe that some of these abnormal changes are the first step in a series of slow changes that can lead to cancer. Some of the atypical cells go away without treatment, but others can become cancerous. This phase of precancerous disease is called "cervical dysplasia", which is an abnormal growth of cells. Sometimes, the dysplasia tissue needs to be removed to stop cancer from developing. Often, the dysplasia tissue can be removed or destroyed without harming healthy tissue. However, sometimes a hysterectomy is needed to prevent cervical cancer. A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus and cervix. A loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) may also be recommended. LEEP uses an electrical current passed through a thin wire hook to remove the tissue.

Treatment of a precancerous area depends on the following factors:

  • The size of the lesion and the type of changes that have occurred in the cells

  • The patient's desire to have children in the future

  • The patient's age and general health

  • Preferences of the patient and the doctor

If the precancerous cells change into cancer cells and spread deeper into the cervix or to other tissues and organs, the disease is then called cervical cancer or invasive cervical cancer.

About cervical cancer

Cervical cancer can grow from the surface of the cervix seen in the vagina, called the ectocervix, or from the canal going from the vagina to the uterus, called the endocervix. There are 2 main types of cervical cancer named for the type of cell where the cancer started. Other types of cervical cancer are rare.

  • Squamous cell carcinoma makes up about 80% to 90% of all cervical cancers. These cancers start in the cells on the outer surface covering of the cervix.

  • Adenocarcinoma makes up 10% to 20% of all cervical cancers. These cancers start in the glandular cells that line the lower birth canal in the internal portion of the cervix.

The squamous and glandular cells meet at the opening of the cervix at the squamocolumnar junction, which is the location where most cervical cancers start.

Looking for More of an Introduction?

If you would like more of an introduction, explore these related items. Please note that these links will take you to other sections on Cancer.Net:

The next section in this guide is Statistics. It helps explain the number of people who are diagnosed with cervical cancer and general survival rates. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Statistics

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find information about the estimated number of people who will be diagnosed with cervical cancer each year. You will also read general information on surviving the disease. Remember, survival rates depend on several factors, and no 2 people with cancer are the same. Use the menu to see other pages. 

Every person is different, with different factors influencing their risk of being diagnosed with this cancer and the chance of recovery after a diagnosis. It is important to talk with your doctor about any questions you have around the general statistics provided below and what they may mean for you individually. The original sources for these statistics are provided at the bottom of this page.  

How many people are diagnosed with cervical cancer? 

In 2023, an estimated 13,960 women in the United States will be diagnosed with invasive cervical cancer. Worldwide, an estimated 604,127 women were diagnosed with cervical cancer in 2020. 

Incidence rates of cervical cancer dropped by more than 50% from the mid-1970s to the mid-2000s due in part to an increase in screening, which can find cervical changes before they turn cancerous. Since 2012, incidence rates have generally remained the same overall. However, in the same timeframe, there was an 11% decrease in incidence rates per year in women ages 20 to 24. This is likely due to the use of the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine (see Risk Factors). 

It is estimated that 4,310 deaths from this disease will occur in the United States in 2023. Similar to the incidence rates, the death rate in the United States dropped by around 50% since the mid-1970s, partly because the increase in screening resulted in earlier detection of cervical cancer. However, the death rate is 65% higher in Black women than in White women, even though both groups self-report similar screening efforts. The death rate has been declining by less than 1% each year since the early 2000s. In 2020, an estimated 341,831 women worldwide died from cervical cancer. 

Cervical cancer is most often diagnosed between the ages of 35 and 44. The average age of diagnosis in the United States is 50. Over 20% of cervical cancers are diagnosed after age 65. These cases usually occur in people who did not receive regular cervical cancer screenings before age 65. It is rare for people younger than 20 to develop cervical cancer. 

What is the survival rate for cervical cancer? 

There are different types of statistics that can help doctors evaluate a person’s chance of recovery from cervical cancer. These are called survival statistics. A specific type of survival statistic is called the relative survival rate. It is often used to predict how having cancer may affect life expectancy. Relative survival rate looks at how likely people with cervical cancer are to survive for a certain amount of time after their initial diagnosis or start of treatment compared to the expected survival of similar people without this cancer.  

Example: Here is an example to help explain what a relative survival rate means. Please note this is only an example and not specific to this type of cancer. Let’s assume that the 5-year relative survival rate for a specific type of cancer is 90%. “Percent” means how many out of 100. Imagine there are 1,000 people without cancer, and based on their age and other characteristics, you expect 900 of the 1,000 to be alive in 5 years. Also imagine there are another 1,000 people similar in age and other characteristics as the first 1,000, but they all have the specific type of cancer that has a 5-year survival rate of 90%. This means it is expected that 810 of the people with the specific cancer (90% of 900) will be alive in 5 years.  

It is important to remember that statistics on the survival rates for people with cervical cancer are only an estimate. They cannot tell an individual person if cancer will or will not shorten their life. Instead, these statistics describe trends in groups of people previously diagnosed with the same disease, including specific stages of the disease. 

The 5-year relative survival rate for all stages of cervical cancer in the U.S. is 67%. 

The survival rates for cervical cancer vary based on several factors. These include the stage of cancer, a person’s age and general health, and how well the treatment plan works. Other factors that can affect outcomes include race and ethnicity.  

For White women, the 5-year relative survival rate is 67%. For Black women, the 5-year relative survival rate is 56%. Older women also have lower survival rates. Women who are 65 or older have a 46% relative survival rate, while women between ages 50 to 64 have a 61% relative survival rate. Women under 50 have a 77% relative survival rate.  

When detected at an early stage, the 5-year relative survival rate for people with invasive cervical cancer is 92%. About 44% of people with cervical cancer are diagnosed at an early stage. If cervical cancer has spread to surrounding tissues or organs and/or the regional lymph nodes, the 5-year relative survival rate is 59%. If the cancer has spread to a distant part of the body, the 5-year relative survival rate is 17%. 

Experts measure relative survival rate statistics for cervical cancer every 5 years. This means the estimate may not reflect the results of advancements in how cervical cancer is diagnosed or treated from the last 5 years. Talk with your doctor if you have any questions about this information. Learn more about understanding statistics

Statistics adapted from the American Cancer Society's (ACS) publications, Cancer Facts & Figures 2023 and Cancer Facts & Figures 2020; the ACS website; and the International Agency for Research on Cancer website. (All sources accessed February 2023.) 

The next section in this guide is Medical Illustrations. It offers drawings of body parts often affected by cervical cancer. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Medical Illustrations

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find a drawing of the main body parts affected by cervical cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

This illustration shows a frontal and sagittal (side) view of a woman’s reproductive system. The frontal section shows the fallopian tubes, 2 small ducts that link the 2 ovaries (1 on each side) to the hollow, pear-shaped uterus. The lower, narrow part of the uterus is called the cervix, which leads to the vagina. The uterus is located in the pelvis, between the bladder and rectum, and the vagina is located behind the urethra, which connects to the bladder. Copyright 2003 American Society of Clinical Oncology. Robert Morreale/Visual Explanations, LLC.

Copyright 2022 American Society of Clinical Oncology. Robert Morreale.

The next section in this guide is Risk Factors and Prevention. It describes the factors that may increase the chance of developing cervical cancer. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Risk Factors

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about the factors that increase the chance of developing cervical cancer. You will also learn about some of the things a person can do to reduce their risk of developing cervical cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

What are the risk factors for cervical cancer?

A risk factor is anything that increases a person's chance of developing cancer. Although risk factors often influence the development of cancer, most do not directly cause cancer. Some people with several risk factors never develop cancer, while others with no known risk factors do. Knowing your risk factors and talking about them with your doctor may help you make more informed lifestyle and health care choices.

The following factors may raise the risk of developing cervical cancer:

  • Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. The most important risk factor for cervical cancer is HPV. HPV is a common infection. Most infections occur after people become sexually active, and most people clear the virus without problems. There are over 100 different types of HPV. Not all of them are linked to cancer. The HPV types, or strains, that are most frequently associated with cervical cancer are HPV16 and HPV18. Starting to have sex at an earlier age or having multiple sexual partners puts a person at higher risk of being infected with high-risk HPV types. HPV vaccines can prevent people from developing certain cancers, including cervical cancer. Learn more about HPV and cancer.

  • Immune system deficiency. People with a lowered immune system have a higher risk of developing cervical cancer. A lowered immune system can be caused by immune suppression from corticosteroid medications, organ transplantation, treatments for other types of cancer, or from the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). When a person has HIV, their immune system is less able to fight off early cancer.

  • Herpes. People who have genital herpes have a higher risk of developing cervical cancer.

  • Smoking. People who smoke tobacco are about twice as likely to develop cervical cancer compared with people who do not smoke.

  • Age. People younger than 20 years old rarely develop cervical cancer. The risk goes up between the late teens and mid-30s. People past this age group remain at risk and need to have regular cervical cancer screenings, which include a Pap test and/or an HPV test.

  • Socioeconomic factors. Cervical cancer is more common among groups of people who are less likely to have access to screening for cervical cancer. Those populations are more likely to include Black people, Hispanic people, American Indian people, and people from low-income households.

  • Oral contraceptives. Some research studies suggest that oral contraceptives, which are birth control pills, may be associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer and may be associated with higher-risk sexual behavior. However, more research is needed to understand how oral contraceptive use and the development of cervical cancer are connected.

  • Exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES). People whose mothers were given this drug during pregnancy to prevent miscarriage have an increased risk of developing a rare type of cancer of the cervix or vagina. DES was given for this purpose from about 1940 to 1970. People exposed to DES should have an annual pelvic examination that includes a cervical Pap test as well as a 4-quadrant Pap test, in which samples of cells are taken from all sides of the vagina to check for abnormal cells.

Are there ways to prevent cervical cancer?

Research continues to look into what factors cause cervical cancer, including ways to prevent it and what people can do to lower their personal risk. Although there is no proven way to completely prevent this disease, there may be steps you can take to lower your cancer risk.

Cervical cancer can often be prevented by having regular screenings with Pap tests and HPV tests to find any precancers and treat them. It can also be prevented by receiving the HPV vaccine.

The HPV vaccine Gardasil is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for prevention of cervical cancer caused by HPV (see Risk Factors) for people between ages 9 and 45. Gardasil 9 is available in the United States for preventing infection from HPV16, HPV18, and 5 other types of HPV linked with cancer. There were 2 other vaccines previously available in the United States: Cervarix and the original Gardasil. However, because of newer vaccines becoming available, these 2 are no longer available in the United States. However, these vaccines may still be in use outside of the United States.

To help prevent cervical cancer, HPV vaccination is recommended for all adolescents as part of their routine vaccines. It may be given starting at age 9. Talk with your health care provider about the appropriate schedule for vaccination as it may vary based on many factors, including age, sex, and vaccine availability. Learn more about HPV vaccination and the American Society of Clinical Oncology's (ASCO's) recommendations for preventing cervical cancer.

Additional actions people can take to help prevent cervical cancer include:

  • Delaying first sexual intercourse until the late teens or older

  • Limiting the number of sexual partners

  • Practicing safer sex by using condoms and dental dams

  • Avoiding sexual intercourse with people who have had many sexual partners

  • Avoiding sexual intercourse with people who are infected with genital warts or who show other symptoms

  • Quitting smoking

Talk with your health care team if you have concerns about your personal risk of developing cervical cancer.

Learn more about cancer prevention and healthy living.

The next section in this guide is Screening. It explains how tests may find precancer and cancer in the cervix before signs and symptoms appear. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Screening and Prevention

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about screening for cervical cancer, including risks and benefits of screening. Use the menu to see other pages.

Screening is used to detect precancerous changes or early cancers before signs or symptoms of cancer occur. Scientists have developed, and continue to develop, tests that can be used to screen a person for specific types of cancer before signs or symptoms appear. The overall goals of cancer screening are to:

  • Reduce the number of people who die from the cancer, or completely eliminate deaths from the cancer

  • Reduce the number of people who develop the cancer

  • Identify people who may need more frequent screening or a different type of screening because they have a higher risk of developing cancer due to genetic mutations, hereditary syndromes, or family history

Learn more about the basics of cancer screening.

How are people screened for cervical cancer?

The following tests and procedures may be used to screen for cervical cancer:

  1. Human papillomavirus (HPV) test. This test is done on a sample of cells removed from the cervix. The same sample is used for the Pap test (see below). This sample is tested for the strains of HPV most commonly linked to cervical cancer. HPV testing may be done by itself or combined with a Pap test. This test may also be done on a sample of cells collected from the vagina, which a person can collect on their own.

  2. Pap test. The Pap test has been the most common test for early changes in cells that can lead to cervical cancer. This test is also called a Pap smear. A Pap test involves gathering a sample of cells from the cervix. It is often done at the same time as a bimanual pelvic exam as part of a gynecologic checkup. A Pap test may be combined with an HPV test.

  3. Visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA). VIA is a screening test that can be done with a few tools and the naked eye. During VIA, a dilution of white vinegar is applied to the cervix. The health care provider then looks for abnormalities on the cervix, which will turn white when exposed to vinegar. This screening test is very useful in places where access to medical care is limited.

Screening for cervical cancer can be done during an appointment with a primary care doctor or a gynecologic specialist. In some areas, free or low-cost screening may be available.

Screening recommendations for cervical cancer

Different organizations have looked at the scientific evidence, risks, and benefits of cervical cancer screening. These groups have developed screening recommendations for people in the United States.

The American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) recommends that all women receive at least 1 HPV test, at a minimum, to screen for cervical cancer in their lifetime, with general frequencies being between every 5 to 10 years. Specific recommendations may vary based on your age and the resources available in the area where you live, so talk with your doctor about how often you should be tested. ASCO recommends that women ages 25 to 65 should receive an HPV test once every 5 years. ASCO and the American Cancer Society (ACS) recommend that women 65 and older or women who have had a hysterectomy may stop screening if their HPV test results have been mostly negative over the previous 15 years. Your doctor may also recommend HPV testing in combination with a Pap test every 5 years or Pap tests alone every 3 years if primary HPV testing is not available in your area.

Decisions about screening for cervical cancer are becoming increasingly individualized. Sometimes, screening may differ from the recommendations discussed above due to a variety of factors, including your personal risk factors and your health history. For example, ASCO recommends that women who have tested positive for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or are immunosuppressed should receive HPV testing as soon as they are diagnosed. ASCO also recommends that people who have given birth be screened for cervical cancer 6 months after childbirth. It’s important to talk with your health care team or a health care professional knowledgeable in cervical cancer screening about how often you should receive screening and which tests are most appropriate for you.

Some questions to ask your health care provider include:

  • At what age should I start being screened for cervical cancer?

  • Should my screening include an HPV test? If so, how often?

  • Why are you recommending these specific tests and this screening schedule for me?

  • At what age could I stop being regularly screened for cervical cancer?

  • Do any recommendations change if I have had cervical dysplasia or precancer?

  • Do any recommendations change if I have human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?

  • Do any recommendations change if I have had a hysterectomy?

  • Do any recommendations change if I am pregnant?

  • Do any recommendations change if I have had the HPV vaccine?

  • What happens if the screening shows positive or abnormal results?

Everyone should talk with their health care team about cervical cancer and decide on an appropriate screening schedule. For people at high risk for developing cervical cancer, screening is recommended at an earlier age and more often than for people who have an average risk of cervical cancer.

To view different groups’ national recommendations, visit the websites of ASCO, ACS, the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Cancer Care Ontario, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, and the World Health Organization. (Please note that these links will take you away from this guide to other, independent websites.)

The next section in this guide is Symptoms and Signs. It explains what changes or medical problems cervical cancer can cause. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Symptoms and Signs

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about the changes and medical problems that can be a sign of cervical cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

What are the symptoms and signs of cervical cancer?

A precancerous lesion of the cervix often does not cause any symptoms or signs. Symptoms or signs do typically appear with early-stage cervical cancer. With advanced cervical cancer, which is cancer that has spread to other parts of the body, the symptoms may be more severe depending on the tissues and organs to which the disease has spread.

Symptoms are changes that you can feel in your body. Signs are changes in something measured, like taking your blood pressure or doing a lab test. Together, symptoms and signs can help describe a medical problem. The cause of a symptom or sign may also be a medical condition that is not cancer, which is why people need to seek medical care if they have a new symptom or sign that does not go away.

Any of the following could be symptoms or signs of cervical cancer:

  • Blood spots or light bleeding between or following periods

  • Menstrual bleeding that is longer and heavier than usual

  • Bleeding after intercourse, douching, or a pelvic examination

  • Increased vaginal discharge

  • Pain during sexual intercourse

  • Bleeding after menopause

  • Unexplained, persistent pelvic and/or back pain

Any of these symptoms should be reported to your doctor. If these symptoms appear, it is important to talk with your doctor about them even if they appear to be symptoms of other, less serious conditions. The earlier precancerous cells or cancer in the cervix is found and treated, the better the chance that the cancer can be prevented or cured.

If you are concerned about any changes you experience, please talk with your doctor. Your doctor will try to understand what is causing your symptom(s). They may do an exam and order tests to understand the cause of the problem, which is called a diagnosis.

If cervical cancer is diagnosed, relieving symptoms remains an important part of cancer care and treatment. Managing symptoms may also be called "palliative and supportive care," which is not the same as hospice care given at the end of life. This type of care focuses on managing symptoms and supporting people who face serious illnesses, such as cancer. You can receive palliative and supportive care at any time during cancer treatment. Learn more in this guide’s section on Coping with Treatment.

Be sure to talk with your health care team about the symptoms you experience, including any new symptoms or a change in symptoms.

The next section in this guide is Diagnosis. It explains what tests may be needed to learn more about the cause of the symptoms. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Diagnosis

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find a list of common tests, procedures, and scans that doctors use to find the cause of a medical problem. Use the menu to see other pages.

Doctors use many tests to find, or diagnose, cancer. They also do tests to learn if cancer has spread to another part of the body from where it started. If the cancer has spread, it is called metastasis. Doctors may also do tests to learn which treatments could work best.

For most types of cancer, a biopsy is the only sure way for the doctor to know if an area of the body has cancer. In a biopsy, the doctor takes a small sample of tissue for testing in a laboratory. If a biopsy is not possible, the doctor may suggest other tests that will help make a diagnosis.

How cervical cancer is diagnosed

There are different tests used for diagnosing cervical cancer. Not all tests described here will be used for every person. Some or all of these tests may be helpful for your doctor to plan the treatment of your cancer. Your doctor may consider these factors when choosing a diagnostic test:

  • The type of cancer suspected

  • Your signs and symptoms

  • Your age and general health

  • The results of earlier medical tests

The following tests may be used to diagnose cervical cancer:

  • Bimanual pelvic examination and sterile speculum examination. In this gynecologic examination, the doctor will check for any unusual changes in the cervix, uterus, vagina, ovaries, and other nearby organs. To start, the doctor will look for any changes to the vulva outside the body and then, using an instrument called a speculum to keep the vaginal walls open, the doctor will look inside the vagina to visualize the cervix. A Pap test is often done at the same time (see below). Some of the nearby organs are not visible during this exam, so the doctor will insert 2 fingers of 1 hand inside the vagina while the other hand gently presses on the lower abdomen to feel the uterus and ovaries. This exam typically takes a few minutes and is done in an examination room at the doctor’s office.

  • Pap test. During a Pap test, the doctor gently scrapes the outside and inside of the cervix, taking samples of cells for testing.

    Improved Pap test methods have made it easier for doctors to find cancerous cells. Traditional Pap tests can be hard to read because cells can be dried out, covered with mucus or blood, or may clump together on the slide.

    • The liquid-based cytology test, often referred to as ThinPrep or SurePath, transfers a thin layer of cells onto a slide after removing blood or mucus from the sample. The sample is preserved so other tests can be done at the same time, such as the human papillomavirus (HPV) test (see Screening).

    • Computer screening, often called AutoPap or FocalPoint, uses a computer to scan the sample for abnormal cells.

  • HPV typing test. An HPV test is similar to a Pap test. The test is done on a sample of cells from the cervix. The doctor may test for HPV at the same time as a Pap test or after Pap test results show abnormal changes to the cervix. Certain types or strains of HPV, such as HPV16 and HPV18, are called high-risk HPV. These strains are seen more often in people with cervical cancer and may help confirm a diagnosis. If the doctor says the HPV test is “positive,” this means the test found the presence of high-risk HPV, so long as you were tested for high-risk HPV. Many people have HPV but do not have cervical cancer, so HPV testing alone is not enough for a diagnosis of cervical cancer and other testing will be needed. If a person with a positive HPV test does not show signs of cervical cancer with further testing, the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) recommends that they receive a follow-up HPV test 1 year later.

  • Colposcopy. The doctor may do a colposcopy to check the cervix for abnormal areas. A colposcopy can also be used to help guide a biopsy of the cervix (see below). During a colposcopy, a special instrument called a colposcope is used. The colposcope magnifies the cells of the cervix and vagina, similar to a microscope. It gives the doctor a lighted, magnified view of the tissues of the vagina and the cervix. The colposcope is not inserted into the body, and the examination is similar to a speculum examination. It can be done in the doctor's office and has no side effects. This test can be done during pregnancy. ASCO recommends that people who receive an abnormal or positive result from cervical cancer screening tests receive a colposcopy.

  • Biopsy. A biopsy is the only way to make a definite diagnosis, even if other tests can suggest that cancer is present. During biopsy, a small amount of tissue is removed for examination under a microscope. A pathologist analyzes the sample(s). A pathologist is a doctor who specializes in interpreting laboratory tests and evaluating cells, tissues, and organs to diagnose disease. If the lesion is small, the doctor may remove all of it during the biopsy.

    There are several types of biopsies. Most are usually done in the doctor's office, sometimes using a local anesthetic to numb the area. There may be some bleeding and other discharge after a biopsy. There may also be discomfort similar to menstrual cramps. One common biopsy method uses an instrument to pinch off small pieces of cervical tissue. Other types of biopsies include:

    • Endocervical curettage (ECC). If the doctor wants to check an area inside the opening of the cervix that cannot be seen during a colposcopy, they will use ECC. During this procedure, the doctor uses a small, spoon-shaped instrument called a curette to scrape a small amount of tissue from inside the cervical opening.

    • Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP). LEEP uses an electrical current passed through a thin wire hook. The hook removes tissue for examination in the laboratory. A LEEP may also be used to remove a precancer or an early-stage cancer.

    • Conization (cone biopsy). This type of biopsy removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix. Conization may be done as treatment to remove a precancer or an early-stage cancer. It is done under a general or local anesthetic and may be done in the doctor's office or the hospital.

    If the biopsy shows that cervical cancer is present, the doctor will refer you to a gynecologic oncologist, which is a doctor who specializes in treating cancers of the female reproductive system. Your doctor may suggest additional tests to see if the cancer has spread beyond the cervix.

  • Pelvic examination under anesthesia. In cases where it is necessary for treatment planning, the specialist may re-examine the pelvic area while the patient is under anesthesia to see if the cancer has spread to any organs near the cervix, including the uterus, vagina, bladder, or rectum.

  • X-ray. An x-ray creates a picture of the structures inside of the body using a small amount of radiation. An intravenous urography is a type of x-ray that is used to view the kidneys and bladder.

  • Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scan. A CT scan takes pictures of the inside of the body using x-rays taken from different angles. A computer combines these pictures into a detailed, 3-dimensional image that shows any abnormalities or tumors. A CT scan can be used to measure the tumor’s size. Sometimes, a special dye called a contrast medium is given before the scan to provide better detail on the image. This dye can be injected into a patient’s vein or given as a pill or liquid to swallow.

  • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). An MRI produces detailed images of the inside of the body using magnetic fields, not x-rays. MRI can be used to measure the tumor’s size. A special dye called a contrast medium is given before the scan to create a clearer picture. This dye can be injected into a patient’s vein or given as a pill or liquid to swallow.

  • Positron emission tomography (PET) or PET-CT scan. A PET scan creates pictures of organs and tissues inside the body. A PET scan is usually combined with a CT scan (see above), called a PET-CT scan. However, you may hear your doctor refer to this procedure just as a PET scan. A small amount of a radioactive sugar substance is injected into the patient’s body. This sugar substance is taken up by cells that use the most energy. Because cancer tends to use energy actively, it absorbs more of the radioactive substance. However, the amount of radiation in the substance is too low to be harmful. A scanner then detects this substance to produce images of the inside of the body.

  • Biomarker testing of the tumor. Your doctor may recommend running laboratory tests on a tumor to identify specific genes, proteins, and other factors unique to the tumor. This may also be called molecular testing of the tumor. Results of these tests can help determine your treatment options.

If there are signs or symptoms of bladder or rectal problems, these procedures may be recommended and may be performed at the same time as a pelvic examination:

  • Cystoscopy. A cystoscopy is a procedure that allows the doctor to view the inside of the bladder and urethra (the canal that carries urine from the bladder) with a thin, lighted tube called a cystoscope. The person may be sedated as the tube is inserted in the urethra. A cystoscopy is used to determine whether cancer has spread to the bladder.

  • Sigmoidoscopy (also called a proctoscopy). A sigmoidoscopy is a procedure that allows the doctor to see the colon and rectum with a thin, lighted, flexible tube called a sigmoidoscope. The person may be sedated as the tube is inserted in the rectum. A sigmoidoscopy is used to see if the cancer has spread to the rectum.

After diagnostic tests are done, your doctor will review the results with you. If the diagnosis is cervical cancer, these results also help the doctor describe the cancer. This is called staging.

The next section in this guide is Stages. It explains the system doctors use to describe the extent of the disease. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Stages

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will learn about how doctors describe a cancer’s growth or spread. This is called the stage. Use the menu to see other pages.

READ MORE BELOW:

What is cancer staging?

Staging is a way of describing where the cancer is located, if or where it has spread, and whether it is affecting other parts of the body.

Doctors use diagnostic tests and physical examination to find out the cancer's stage, so staging may not be complete until all of the tests are finished. Knowing the stage helps the doctor recommend the best kind of treatment and can help predict a patient's prognosis, which is the chance of recovery. There are different stage descriptions for different types of cancer. For cervical cancer, the staging system developed by the International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Federation Internationale de Gynecologie et d'Obstetrique, or FIGO) is used.

Return to top

FIGO stages for cervical cancer

Doctors assign the stage of the cancer by evaluating the tumor and whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

Staging is based on the results of a physical exam, imaging scans, and biopsies.

Stage I: The cancer has spread from the cervix lining into the deeper tissue but is still just found in the uterus. It has not spread to other parts of the body. This stage may be divided into smaller groups to describe the cancer in more detail (see below).

  • Stage IA: The cancer is diagnosed only by viewing cervical tissue or cells under a microscope. Imaging tests or evaluation of tissue samples can also be used to determine tumor size.

    • Stage IA1: There is a cancerous area of less than 3 millimeters (mm) in depth.

    • Stage IA2: There is a cancerous area 3 mm to less than 5 mm in depth.

  • Stage IB:In this stage, the tumor is larger but still only confined to the cervix. There is no distant spread.

    • Stage IB1: The tumor is 5 mm or more in depth and less than 2 centimeters (cm) wide.

    • Stage IB2: The tumor is 5 mm or more in depth and between 2 and 4 cm wide.

    • Stage IB3: The tumor is 4 cm or more in width.

Stage II: The cancer has spread beyond the uterus to nearby areas, such as the vagina or tissue near the cervix, but it is still inside the pelvic area. The cancer has not spread to other parts of the body. This stage may be divided into smaller groups to describe the cancer in more detail (see below).

  • Stage IIA:The tumor is limited to the upper two-thirds of the vagina. It has not spread to the tissue next to the cervix, which is called the parametrial area.

    • Stage IIA1: The tumor is less than 4 cm wide.

    • Stage IIA2: The tumor is 4 cm or more in width.

  • Stage IIB: The tumor has spread to the parametrial area. The tumor does not reach the pelvic wall.

Stage III: The tumor involves the lower third of the vagina and/or: has spread to the pelvic wall; causes swelling of the kidney, called hydronephrosis; stops a kidney from functioning; and/or involves regional lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that help fight infection. There is no distant spread.

  • Stage IIIA: The tumor involves the lower third of the vagina, but it has not grown into the pelvic wall.

  • Stage IIIB: The tumor has grown into the pelvic wall and/or affects a kidney.

  • Stage IIIC: The tumor involves regional lymph nodes. This can be detected using imaging tests or pathology. Adding a lowercase "r" indicates imaging tests were used to confirm lymph node involvement. A lowercase "p" indicates pathology results were used to determine the stage.

    • Stage IIIC1: The cancer has spread to lymph nodes in the pelvis.

    • Stage IIIC2: The cancer has spread to para-aortic lymph nodes. These lymph nodes are found in the abdomen near the base of the spine and near the aorta, a major artery that runs from the heart to the abdomen.

Stage IVA: The cancer has spread to the bladder or rectum, but it has not spread to other parts of the body.

Stage IVB: The cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

Source: Bhatla N, et al. Revised FIGO staging for carcinoma of the cervix uteri. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2019; 1–7.

Recurrent: Recurrent cancer is cancer that has come back after treatment. Cervical cancer can come back either in the pelvis where it began or spread to other areas throughout the body, such as the lungs, lymph nodes, and bones. If the cancer does return, there will be another round of tests to learn about the extent of the recurrence. These tests and scans are often similar to those done at the time of the original diagnosis.

Return to top

Information about the cancer’s stage will help the doctor recommend a specific treatment plan. The next section in this guide is Types of Treatment. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Types of Treatment

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will learn about the different types of treatments for cervical cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

This section explains the types of treatments, also known as therapies, that are the standard of care for cervical cancer. “Standard of care” means the best treatments known. Information in this section is based on medical standards of care for cervical cancer in the United States. Treatment options can vary from one place to another.

Clinical trials may also be an option for you, which is something you can discuss with your doctor. A clinical trial is a research study that tests a new approach to treatment. Learn more about clinical trials in the About Clinical Trials and Latest Research sections of this guide.

How cervical cancer is treated

In cancer care, different types of doctors who specialize in cancer, called oncologists, often work together to create a patient’s overall treatment plan that combines different types of treatments. This is called a multidisciplinary team. Cancer care teams include other health care professionals, such as physician assistants, nurse practitioners, oncology nurses, social workers, pharmacists, counselors, dietitians, physical therapists, occupational therapists, and others. Learn more about the clinicians who provide cancer care.

The treatment of cervical cancer depends on several factors, including the type and stage of cancer, possible side effects, and the patient’s preferences and overall health. Take time to learn about all of your treatment options and be sure to ask questions about things that are unclear. Talk with your doctor about the goals of each treatment and what you can expect while receiving the treatment. These types of conversations are called “shared decision-making.” Shared decision-making is when you and your doctors work together to choose treatments that fit the goals of your care. Shared decision-making is important for cervical cancer because there are different treatment options. Learn more about making treatment decisions.

A diagnosis of cervical cancer may bring concerns about if or how treatment may affect sexual function and the ability to have children, called fertility. These topics should be discussed with the health care team before treatment begins. If you are pregnant, talk with the doctor about your treatment options, including whether or not each could affect your unborn child. Treatment may be able to be delayed until after the baby is born.

The common types of treatments used for cervical cancer are described below. Your care plan may also include treatment for symptoms and side effects, an important part of cancer care.

READ MORE BELOW:

Surgery

Surgery is the removal of the tumor and some surrounding healthy tissue during an operation. For cancer that has not spread beyond the cervix, these procedures are often used:

  • Conization. The use of the same procedure as a cone biopsy (see Diagnosis) to remove all of the abnormal tissue. It can be used to remove cervical cancer that can only be seen with a microscope, called microinvasive cancer.

  • Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP). The use of an electrical current passed through a thin wire hook. The hook removes the tissue. It can be used to remove microinvasive cervical cancer.

  • Hysterectomy. The removal of the uterus and cervix. A hysterectomy can be either simple or radical. A simple hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus and cervix. A radical hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus, cervix, upper vagina, and the tissue around the cervix. A radical hysterectomy also includes an extensive pelvic lymph node dissection, which means lymph nodes are removed. This procedure can be done using a large cut in the abdomen, called laparotomy, or using smaller cuts, called laparoscopy.

  • Bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy. If needed, this surgery is the removal of both fallopian tubes and both ovaries. It is done at the same time as a hysterectomy.

  • Radical trachelectomy. A surgical procedure in which the cervix is removed, but the uterus is left intact. It includes pelvic lymph node dissection (see above). This surgery may be used for young patients who want to preserve their fertility. This procedure has become an acceptable alternative to a hysterectomy for some patients.

  • Exenteration. The removal of the uterus, vagina, lower colon, rectum, or bladder if cervical cancer has spread to these organs after radiation therapy (see below). Exenteration is rarely recommended. It is most often used when cancer has come back after radiation therapy.

Complications or side effects from surgery vary depending on the type and extent of the procedure. Occasionally, patients experience significant bleeding, infection, or damage to the urinary and intestinal systems. Before surgery, talk with your health care team about the possible side effects from the specific surgery you will have and how they can be relieved.

Because these surgical procedures affect sexual health, patients should talk with their doctor about their symptoms and concerns in detail before the surgery. The doctor may be able to help reduce the side effects of surgery and provide support resources on coping with any changes. If extensive surgical procedures have affected sexual function, other surgical procedures can be used to make an artificial vagina.

Learn more about the basics of cancer surgery.

Return to top

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is the use of high-energy x-rays or other particles to destroy cancer cells. A doctor who specializes in giving radiation therapy to treat cancer is called a radiation oncologist. Radiation therapy may be given alone, before surgery, or instead of surgery to shrink the tumor.

The most common type of radiation treatment is called external-beam radiation therapy, which is radiation given from a machine outside the body. When radiation treatment is given using implants, it is called internal radiation therapy or brachytherapy. A radiation therapy regimen, or schedule, usually consists of a specific number of treatments given over a set period of time that combines external and internal radiation treatments. This combined approach is the most effective to reduce the chances the cancer will come back, called a recurrence.

For early stages of cervical cancer, a combination of radiation therapy and low-dose weekly chemotherapy is often used (see below). The goal of radiation therapy combined with chemotherapy is to increase the effectiveness of the radiation treatment. This combination is given to control the cancer in the pelvis with the goal of curing the cancer without surgery. It may also be given to destroy microscopic cancer cells that might remain after surgery.

Side effects from radiation therapy may include fatigue, mild skin reactions, upset stomach, and loose bowel movements. Side effects of internal radiation therapy may include abdominal pain and bowel obstruction, although it is uncommon. Most side effects usually go away after treatment is finished. After radiation therapy, the vaginal area may lose elasticity, so some patients may also want to use a vaginal dilator, which is a plastic or rubber cylinder that is inserted into the vagina to prevent narrowing. People who have received external-beam radiation therapy will lose the ability to become pregnant, and unless the ovaries have been surgically moved out of the pelvis, premenopausal patients will enter menopause.

Sometimes, doctors advise their patients not to have sexual intercourse during radiation therapy. Normal sexual activity can restart within a few weeks after treatment if the patient feels ready.

Learn more about the basics of radiation therapy, or read the American Society for Radiation Oncology’s pamphlet, Radiation Therapy for Gynecologic Cancers (PDF; please note that this link takes you to a separate, external website).

Return to top

Therapies using medication

The treatment plan may include medications to destroy cancer cells. Medication may be given through the bloodstream to reach cancer cells throughout the body. When a drug is given this way, it is called systemic therapy. Medication may also be given locally, which is when the medication is applied directly to the cancer or kept in a single part of the body.

This treatment is generally prescribed by a medical oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating cancer with medication, or a gynecologic oncologist. Medications are often given through an intravenous (IV) tube placed into a vein using a needle or as a pill or capsule that is swallowed (orally). If you are given oral medications to take at home, be sure to ask your health care team about how to safely store and handle them.

The types of medications used for cervical cancer include:

  • Chemotherapy

  • Targeted therapy

  • Immunotherapy

Each of these types of therapies is discussed below in more detail. A person may receive 1 type of medication at a time or a combination of medications given at the same time. They can also be given as part of a treatment plan that includes surgery and/or radiation therapy.

The medications used to treat cancer are continually being evaluated. Talking with your doctor is often the best way to learn about the medications prescribed for you, their purpose, and their potential side effects or interactions with other medications. It is also important to let your doctor know if you are taking any other prescription or over-the-counter medications or supplements. Herbs, supplements, and other drugs can interact with cancer medications, causing unwanted side effects or reduced effectiveness. Learn more about your prescriptions by using searchable drug databases.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells, usually by keeping the cancer cells from growing, dividing, and making more cells.

A chemotherapy regimen, or schedule, usually consists of a specific number of cycles given over a set period of time. A patient may receive 1 drug at a time or a combination of different drugs given at the same time. For people with cervical cancer, chemotherapy is often given in combination with radiation therapy (see above).

Although chemotherapy can be given orally (by mouth), all the drugs used to treat cervical cancer are given intravenously (IV). IV chemotherapy is either injected directly into a vein or given through a thin tube called a catheter, which is a tube temporarily put into a large vein to make injections easier.

The side effects of chemotherapy depend on the individual and the dose used, but they can include fatigue, risk of infection, nausea and vomiting, hair loss, loss of appetite, and diarrhea. These side effects usually go away after treatment is finished.

Rarely, specific drugs may cause some hearing loss. Others may cause kidney damage or peripheral neuropathy, which is numbness, pain, or tingling in the hands or feet. Patients may be given extra fluid intravenously to protect their kidneys. Talk with your doctor about the possible short-term and long-term side effects based on the drugs and dosages you will be receiving.

Learn more about the basics of chemotherapy.

Return to top

Targeted therapy

Targeted therapy is a treatment that targets the cancer’s specific genes, proteins, or the tissue environment that contributes to cancer growth and survival. This type of treatment blocks the growth and spread of cancer cells and limits damage to healthy cells.

Not all tumors have the same targets. To find the most effective treatment, your doctor may run tests to identify the genes, proteins, and other factors in your tumor. This helps doctors better match each patient with the most effective treatment whenever possible. In addition, research studies continue to find out more about specific molecular targets and new treatments directed at them.

If cervical cancer comes back after treatment, called recurrent cancer, or if cervical cancer has spread beyond the pelvis, called metastatic disease, it can be treated with a platinum-based chemotherapy combined with the targeted therapy bevacizumab (Avastin). There are 2 drugs similar to bevacizumab, called bevacizumab-awwb (Mvasi) and bevacizumab-bvzr (Zirabev), that have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat advanced cervical cancer. These are called biosimilars.

In addition, in 2021, the FDA granted accelerated approval to the targeted therapy tisotumab vedotin (HuMax-TF) for the treatment of recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer that has progressed during or after chemotherapy. Tisotumab vedotin is a type of targeted therapy called an antibody-drug conjugate that works by attaching to targets on cancer cells and then releasing a small amount of the anticancer drug directly into the tumor cells.

Talk with your doctor about the possible side effects of the targeted therapy prescribed for you and how they can be managed. Learn more about the basics of targeted treatments.

Return to top

Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy uses the body's natural defenses to fight cancer by improving your immune system’s ability to attack cancer cells.

The immune checkpoint inhibitor pembrolizumab (Keytruda) is used to treat cervical cancer that has recurred or spread to other parts of the body during or after treatment with chemotherapy. In those with newly diagnosed advanced cervical cancer, pembrolizumab may be combined with chemotherapy and radiation therapy as an initial treatment. Pembrolizumab may also be used in combination with chemotherapy with or without bevacizumab in people with recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer whose tumors express PD-L1. Some cancer cells express the PD-L1 protein, which binds to the PD-1 protein on T cells. T cells are immune system cells that kill certain other cells, like cancer cells. When the PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins bind, the T cell does not attack the cancer cell. Pembrolizumab is a PD-1 inhibitor, so it blocks the binding between PD-1 and PD-L1, which allows the T cells to find and attack the cancer cells.

Different types of immunotherapy can cause different side effects. Common side effects include skin reactions, flu-like symptoms, diarrhea, and weight changes. Talk with your doctor about possible side effects for the immunotherapy recommended for you. Learn more about the basics of immunotherapy.

Return to top

Physical, emotional, social, and financial effects of cancer

Cancer and its treatment cause physical symptoms and side effects, as well as emotional, social, and financial effects. Managing all of these effects is called palliative and supportive care. It is an important part of your care that is included along with treatments intended to slow, stop, or eliminate the cancer.

Palliative and supportive care focuses on improving how you feel during treatment by managing symptoms and supporting patients and their families with other, non-medical needs. Any person, regardless of age or type and stage of cancer, may receive this type of care. And it often works best when it is started right after a cancer diagnosis. People who receive palliative and supportive care along with treatment for the cancer often have less severe symptoms, better quality of life, and report that they are more satisfied with treatment.

Palliative treatments vary widely and often include medication, nutritional changes, relaxation techniques, emotional and spiritual support, and other therapies. You may also receive palliative treatments, such as chemotherapy, surgery, or radiation therapy, to improve symptoms.

Before treatment begins, talk with your doctor about the goals of each treatment in the recommended treatment plan. You should also talk about the possible side effects of the specific treatment plan and palliative and supportive care options. Many patients also benefit from talking with a social worker and participating in support groups. Ask your doctor about these resources, too.

Cancer care is often expensive, and navigating health insurance can be difficult. Ask your doctor or another member of your health care team about talking with a financial navigator or counselor who may be able to help with your financial concerns.

During treatment, your health care team may ask you to answer questions about your symptoms and side effects and to describe each problem. Be sure to tell the health care team if you are experiencing a problem. This helps the health care team treat any symptoms and side effects as quickly as possible. It can also help prevent more serious problems in the future.

Learn more about the importance of tracking side effects in another part of this guide. Learn more about palliative and supportive care in a separate section of this website.

Return to top

Treatment options by stage

Radiation therapy alone or surgery is generally used for an early-stage tumor. These treatments have been shown to be equally effective at treating early-stage cervical cancer. Chemoradiation (a combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy) is generally used for people with a larger tumor, an advanced-stage tumor found only in the pelvis, or if the lymph nodes have cancer cells. Commonly, radiation therapy and chemotherapy are used after surgery if there is a high risk of the cancer coming back or if the cancer has spread.

Return to top

Metastatic cervical cancer

If cancer spreads to another part in the body from where it started, doctors call it metastatic cancer. If this happens, it is a good idea to talk with doctors who have experience in treating it. Doctors can have different opinions about the best standard treatment plan. Clinical trials might also be an option. Learn more about getting a second opinion before starting treatment, so you are comfortable with your chosen treatment plan.

Chemotherapy, immunotherapy, surgery, and targeted therapy may be used to treat or remove newly affected areas in both the pelvic area and other parts of the body. Palliative and supportive care will also be important to help relieve symptoms and side effects, especially to relieve pain and other side effects from radiation therapy.

For many people, a diagnosis of metastatic cancer is very stressful and difficult. You and your family are encouraged to talk about how you feel with doctors, nurses, social workers, or other members of your health care team. It may also be helpful to talk with other patients, such as through a support group or other peer support program.

Return to top

Remission and the chance of recurrence

A remission is when cancer cannot be detected in the body and there are no symptoms. This may also be called having “no evidence of disease” or NED.

A remission may be temporary or permanent. This uncertainty causes many people to worry that the cancer will come back. While many remissions are permanent, it is important to talk with your doctor about the possibility of the cancer returning. An important part of follow-up care is watching for recurrence. Understanding your risk of recurrence and the treatment options may help you feel more prepared if the cancer does return. Learn more about coping with the fear of recurrence.

If the cancer returns after the original treatment, it is called recurrent cancer. Recurrent cancer may come back in the same place (called a local recurrence), nearby (regional recurrence), or in another place (distant recurrence).

If a recurrence happens, a new cycle of testing will begin to learn as much as possible about it. After this testing is done, you and your doctor will talk about the treatment options. Often the treatment plan will include the treatments described above, such as surgery, systemic therapy, and radiation therapy, but they may be used in a different combination or given at a different pace. Your doctor may suggest clinical trials that are studying new ways to treat recurrent cervical cancer. Whichever treatment plan you choose, palliative and supportive care will be important for relieving symptoms and side effects.

People with recurrent cancer sometimes experience emotions such as disbelief or fear. You are encouraged to talk with your health care team about these feelings and ask about support services to help you cope. Learn more about dealing with cancer recurrence.

Return to top

If treatment does not work

Recovery from cancer is not always possible. If the cancer cannot be cured or controlled, the disease may be called incurable, distant metastatic, or terminal.

This diagnosis is stressful, and for some people, advanced cancer is difficult to discuss. However, it is important to have open and honest conversations with your health care team to express your feelings, preferences, and concerns. The health care team has special skills, experience, and knowledge to support patients and their families and is there to help. Making sure a person is physically comfortable, free from pain, and emotionally supported is extremely important.

Planning for your future care and putting your wishes in writing is important, especially at this stage of disease. Then, your health care team and loved ones will know what you want, even if you are unable to make these decisions. Learn more about putting your health care wishes in writing.

People who have advanced cancer and who are expected to live less than 6 months may want to consider hospice care. Hospice care is designed to provide the best possible quality of life for people who are near the end of life. You and your family are encouraged to talk with your doctor or a member of your palliative care team about hospice care options, which include hospice care at home, a special hospice center, or other health care locations. Nursing care and special equipment can make staying at home a workable option for many families. Learn more about advanced cancer care planning.

After the death of a loved one, many people need support to help them cope with the loss. Learn more about grief and loss.

Return to top

The next section in this guide is About Clinical Trials. It offers more information about research studies that are focused on finding better ways to care for people with cancer. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - About Clinical Trials

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will learn more about clinical trials, which are the main way that new medical approaches are studied to see how well they work. Use the menu to see other pages.

What are clinical trials?

Doctors and scientists are always looking for better ways to care for people with cervical cancer. To make scientific advances, doctors create research studies involving volunteers, called clinical trials. Every drug that is now approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was tested in clinical trials.

Clinical trials are used for all types and stages of cervical cancer. Many focus on new treatments to learn if a new treatment is safe, effective, and possibly better than the existing treatments. These types of studies evaluate new drugs, different combinations of treatments, new approaches to radiation therapy or surgery, and new methods of treatment.

People who participate in clinical trials can be some of the first to get a treatment before it is available to the public. However, there are some risks with a clinical trial, including possible unknown side effects and the chance that the new treatment may not work. People are encouraged to talk with their health care team about the pros and cons of joining a specific study.

Some clinical trials study new ways to relieve symptoms and side effects during treatment. Others study ways to manage the late effects that may happen a long time after treatment. Talk with your doctor about clinical trials for symptoms and side effects.

Deciding to join a clinical trial

People decide to participate in clinical trials for many reasons. For some, a clinical trial is the best treatment option available. Because standard treatments are not perfect, patients are often willing to face the added uncertainty of a clinical trial in the hope of a better result. Others volunteer for clinical trials because they know that these studies are a way to contribute to the progress in treating cervical cancer. Even if they do not benefit directly from the clinical trial, their participation may benefit future people with cervical cancer.

Insurance coverage and the costs of clinical trials differ by location and by study. In some programs, some of the expenses from participating in the clinical trial are reimbursed. In others, they are not. It is important to talk with the research team and your insurance company first to learn if and how your treatment in a clinical trial will be covered. Learn more about health insurance coverage of clinical trials.

Sometimes people have concerns that, in a clinical trial, they may receive no treatment by being given a placebo or a “sugar pill.” When used, placebos are usually combined with standard treatment in most cancer clinical trials. Study participants will always be told when a placebo is used in a study. Find out more about placebos in cancer clinical trials.

Patient safety and informed consent

To join a clinical trial, people must participate in a process known as informed consent. During informed consent, the doctor should:

  • Describe all of the treatment options so that the person understands how the new treatment differs from the standard treatment.

  • List all of the risks of the new treatment, which may or may not be different from the risks of standard treatment.

  • Explain what will be required of each person in order to participate in the clinical trial, including the number of doctor visits, tests, and the schedule of treatment.

  • Describe the purposes of the clinical trial and what researchers are trying to learn.

Clinical trials also have certain rules called “eligibility criteria” that help structure the research and keep patients safe. You and the research team will carefully review these criteria together. You will need to meet all of the eligibility criteria in order to participate in a clinical trial. Learn more about eligibility criteria in clinical trials.

People who participate in a clinical trial may stop participating at any time for personal or medical reasons. This may include that the new treatment is not working or there are serious side effects. Clinical trials are also closely monitored by experts who watch for any problems with each study. It is important that people participating in a clinical trial talk with their doctor and researchers about who will be providing their treatment and care during the clinical trial, after the clinical trial ends, and/or if they choose to leave the clinical trial before it ends.

Finding a clinical trial

Research through clinical trials is ongoing for all types of cancer. For specific topics being studied for cervical cancer, learn more in the Latest Research section.

Cancer.Net offers more information about cancer clinical trials in other areas of the website, including a complete section on clinical trials.

There are many resources and services to help you search for clinical trials for cervical cancer, including the following services. Please note that these links will take you to separate, independent websites:

  • ClinicalTrials.gov. This U.S. government database lists publicly and privately supported clinical trials.

  • World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform. The WHO coordinates health matters within the United Nations. This search portal gathers clinical trial information from many countries’ registries.

Read more about the basics of clinical trials matching services.

PRE-ACT, Preparatory Education About Clinical Trials

In addition, you can find a free video-based educational program about cancer clinical trials in another section of this website.

The next section in this guide is Latest Research. It explains areas of scientific research for cervical cancer. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Latest Research

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will read about the scientific research being done to learn more about cervical cancer and how to treat it. Use the menu to see other pages.

Doctors are working to learn more about cervical cancer, ways to prevent it, how to best treat it, and how to provide the best care to people diagnosed with this disease. The following areas of research may include new options for patients through clinical trials. Always talk with your doctor about the best diagnostic and treatment options for you.

  • Improved detection and screening methods. Because cervical cancer is highly treatable when detected early, researchers are developing better ways to detect precancer and cervical cancer. For example, fluorescent spectroscopy is the use of fluorescent light to detect changes in precancerous cervix cells.

  • Human papillomavirus (HPV) prevention. As discussed in the Screening section, HPV vaccines help prevent infection from the HPV strains that cause most cervical cancers. Gardasil is also approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for boys and men ages 9 through 26 to prevent genital warts. Researchers are looking at the impact of the HPV vaccine on boys to reduce the risk of HPV transmission.

  • Immunotherapy. As explained in Types of Treatment, immunotherapy is a systemic therapy using medication designed to boost the body’s natural defenses to fight the cancer. It uses materials made either by the body or in a laboratory to improve, target, or restore immune system function. For people who already have cervical cancer, a therapeutic vaccine is being developed. This type of vaccine helps "train" the immune system to recognize cervical cancer cells and destroy them. Learn more about immunotherapy.

  • Fertility-preserving surgery. Research continues to focus on improving surgical techniques and finding out which patients can be treated successfully without losing their ability to become pregnant and have children. Learn more about fertility preservation.

  • Targeted therapy. As explained in Types of Treatment, targeted therapy is a treatment that targets the cancer’s specific genes, proteins, or the tissue environment that contributes to cancer growth and survival. Targeted drugs called angiogenesis inhibitors that block the action of a protein called vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) have been shown to help people live longer if they have cervical cancer that has spread to other parts of the body. VEGF promotes angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels. Because a tumor needs the nutrients delivered by blood vessels to grow and spread, the goal of angiogenesis inhibitors is to “starve” the tumor. Learn more about angiogenesis inhibitors and targeted treatments.

  • Combination therapy. Some clinical trials are exploring different combinations of immunotherapy, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

  • Palliative and supportive care. Clinical trials are underway to find better ways of reducing symptoms and side effects of current cervical cancer treatments to improve comfort and quality of life for patients.

Looking for More About Latest Research?

If you would like more information about the latest areas of research in cervical cancer, explore these related items that take you outside of this guide:

The next section in this guide is Coping with Treatment. It offers some guidance on how to cope with the physical, emotional, social, and financial changes that cancer and its treatment can bring. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Coping With Treatment

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about coping with the physical, emotional, social, and financial effects of cancer and its treatment. Use the menu to see other pages.

Every cancer treatment can cause side effects or changes to your body and how you feel. For many reasons, people do not experience the same side effects even when they are given the same treatment for the same type of cancer. This can make it hard to predict how you will feel during treatment.

READ MORE BELOW:

As you prepare to start cancer treatment, it is normal to fear treatment-related side effects. It may help to know that your health care team will work to prevent and relieve side effects. This part of cancer treatment is called palliative and supportive care. It is an important part of your treatment plan, regardless of your age or the stage of disease.

Coping with physical side effects

Common physical side effects from each treatment option for cervical cancer are described in the Types of Treatment section. Learn more about side effects of cancer and its treatment, along with ways to prevent or control them. Changes to your physical health depend on several factors, including the cancer’s stage, the length and dose of treatment, and your general health.

Talk with your health care team regularly about how you are feeling. It is important to let them know about any new side effects or changes in existing side effects. If they know how you are feeling, they can find ways to relieve or manage your side effects to help you feel more comfortable and potentially keep any side effects from worsening.

You may find it helpful to keep track of your side effects so it is easier to talk about any changes with your health care team. Learn more about why tracking side effects is helpful.

Sometimes, side effects can last after treatment ends. Doctors call these long-term side effects. Side effects that occur months or years after treatment are called late effects. Treating long-term side effects and late effects is an important part of survivorship care. Learn more by reading the Follow-Up Care section of this guide or talking with your doctor.

Return to top

Coping with emotional and social effects

You can have emotional and social effects after a cancer diagnosis. This may include dealing with a variety of emotions, such as sadness, anxiety, fear, or anger, or managing your stress level. Sometimes, people find it difficult to express how they feel to their loved ones. Some have found that talking to an oncology social worker, counselor, or member of the clergy can help them develop more effective ways of coping and talking about cancer.

You can also find coping strategies for emotional and social effects in a separate section of this website. This section includes many resources for finding support and information to meet your needs.

Return to top

Coping with the stigma of cervical cancer

Cervical cancer, like other cancers that affect the sex organs, can be difficult or uncomfortable to discuss. People with many different types of cancer, such as testicular, penile, vaginal, and vulvar cancers, can experience feelings of embarrassment when discussing these sensitive areas of their bodies. However, this should never stop you from requesting and receiving the emotional support you deserve, and your cancer care team will never be embarrassed by discussing these issues with you. Your team can help you feel more comfortable talking about this with others as well.

Because cervical cancer is associated with human papillomavirus (HPV), patients may feel that they will not receive as much support or help from people around them because they believe that others may think that their behavior caused the disease. Although almost all cervical cancers are caused by HPV, it is important to remember that most genital HPV infections will not cause cancer. Cervical cancer can affect anyone.

Living with this stigma can make patients feel guilty, hopeless, embarrassed, ashamed, and isolated. Patients and their families should tell the health care team if they are affected by any of these emotions. There are resources to help those living with cervical cancer. Some patients feel comfortable discussing their disease and experiences with their doctor, nurse, family, and friends. Others find help through a support group or other avenues.

Learn more about counseling and finding a support group.

Return to top

Coping with the costs of cancer care

Cancer treatment can be expensive. It may be a source of stress and anxiety for people with cancer and their families. In addition to treatment costs, many people find they have extra, unplanned expenses related to their care. For some people, the high cost of medical care stops them from following or completing their cancer treatment plan. This can put their health at risk and may lead to higher costs in the future. Patients and their families are encouraged to talk about financial concerns with a member of their health care team. Learn more about managing financial considerations in a separate part of this website.

Return to top

Coping with barriers to care

Some groups of people experience different rates of new cancer cases and experience different outcomes from their cancer diagnosis. These differences are called “cancer disparities.” Disparities are caused in part by real-world barriers to quality medical care and social determinants of health, such as where a person lives and whether they have access to food and health care. Cancer disparities more often negatively affect racial and ethnic minorities, people with fewer financial resources, sexual and gender minorities (LGBTQ+), adolescent and young adult populations, adults older than 65, and people who live in rural areas or other underserved communities.

If you are having difficulty getting the care you need, talk with a member of your health care team or explore other resources that help support medically underserved people.

Return to top

Talking with your health care team about side effects

Before starting treatment, talk with your doctor about possible side effects. Ask:

  • Which side effects are most likely?

  • When are they likely to happen?

  • What can we do to prevent or relieve them?

  • When and who should I call about side effects?

Be sure to tell your health care team about any side effects that happen during treatment and afterward, too. Tell them even if you do not think the side effects are serious. This discussion should include physical, emotional, social, and financial effects of cancer.

Return to top

Caring for a loved one with cervical cancer

Family members and friends often play an important role in taking care of a person with cervical cancer. This is called being a caregiver. Caregivers can provide physical, practical, and emotional support to the patient, even if they live far away. Being a caregiver can also be stressful and emotionally challenging. One of the most important tasks for caregivers is caring for themselves.

Caregivers may have a range of responsibilities on a daily or as-needed basis, including:

  • Providing support and encouragement

  • Talking with the health care team

  • Giving medications

  • Helping manage symptoms and side effects

  • Coordinating medical appointments

  • Providing a ride to and from appointments

  • Assisting with meals

  • Helping with household chores

  • Handling insurance and billing issues

A caregiving plan can help caregivers stay organized and help identify opportunities to delegate tasks to others. It may be helpful to ask the health care team how much care will be needed at home and with daily tasks during and after treatment. Use this 1-page fact sheet to help make a caregiving action plan. This free fact sheet is available as a PDF, so it is easy to print.

Learn more about caregiving or read the ASCO Answers Guide to Caring for a Loved One With Cancer in English or Spanish.

Return to top

Looking for More on How to Track Side Effects?

Cancer.Net offers several resources to help you keep track of your symptoms and side effects. Please note that these links will take you to other sections of Cancer.Net:

Return to top

The next section in this guide is Follow-Up Care. It explains the importance of checkups after you finish cancer treatment. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Follow-Up Care

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will read about your medical care after cancer treatment is completed and why this follow-up care is important. Use the menu to see other pages.

Care for people diagnosed with cervical cancer does not end when active treatment has finished. Your health care team will continue to check that the cancer has not come back, manage any side effects, and monitor your overall health. This is called follow-up care.

Your follow-up care may include regular physical examinations, medical tests, or both. Doctors want to keep track of your recovery in the months and years ahead.

Surveillance after treatment is recommended, and early detection of a local recurrence may be potentially curable. Follow-up care for cervical cancer will typically include clinical history and physical examination, which includes a pelvic examination and a smear of the vagina. Additional scans may be recommended depending on clinical factors.

In patients treated for a higher-risk cervical cancer, clinical follow-up may be performed every 3 months for the first 2 years, every 6 months for years 3 through 5, and then annually. If there are suspicious clinical findings or symptoms, further exams and assessments, including scans, will be done.

For patients treated for precancerous lesions, the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) recommends they receive follow-up testing 1 year later with a human papillomavirus (HPV) test.

Cancer rehabilitation may be recommended, and this could mean any of a wide range of services, such as physical therapy, occupational therapy, career counseling, pain management, nutritional planning, and/or emotional counseling. The goal of rehabilitation is to help people regain control over many aspects of their lives and remain as independent as possible. Learn more about cancer rehabilitation.

Learn more about the importance of follow-up care.

Watching for recurrence

One goal of follow-up care is to check for a recurrence, which means that the cancer has come back. Cancer recurs because small areas of cancer cells may remain undetected in the body. Over time, these cells may increase in number until they show up on test results or cause signs or symptoms. During follow-up care, a doctor familiar with your medical history can give you personalized information about your risk of recurrence. Your doctor will ask specific questions about your health. Some people may have blood tests or imaging tests done as part of regular follow-up care, but testing recommendations depend on several factors, including the type and stage of cancer first diagnosed and the types of treatment given.

The anticipation before having a follow-up test or waiting for test results may add stress to you or a family member. This is sometimes called “scanxiety.” Learn more about how to cope with this type of stress.

Managing long-term and late side effects

Most people expect to have side effects when receiving treatment. However, it is often surprising to survivors that some side effects may linger beyond the treatment period. These are called long-term side effects. Other side effects called late effects may develop months or even years after treatment has ended. Long-term and late effects can include both physical and emotional changes.

Talk with your doctor about your risk of developing such side effects based on your diagnosis, your individual treatment plan, and your overall health. If you had a treatment known to cause specific late effects, you may have certain physical examinations, scans, or blood tests to help find and manage them.

Keeping personal health records

You and your doctor should work together to develop a personalized follow-up care plan. Be sure to discuss any concerns you have about your future physical or emotional health. ASCO offers forms to help keep track of the cancer treatment you received and develop a survivorship care plan when treatment is completed.

This is also a good time to talk with your doctor about who will lead your follow-up care. Some survivors continue to see their oncologist, while others transition back to the care of their primary care doctor or another health care professional. This decision depends on several factors, including the type and stage of cancer, treatments received, side effects, health insurance rules, and your personal preferences.

If a doctor who was not directly involved in your cancer care will lead your follow-up care, be sure to share your cancer treatment summary and survivorship care plan forms with them and with all future health care providers. Details about your cancer treatment are very valuable to the health care professionals who will care for you throughout your lifetime.

The next section in this guide is Survivorship. It describes how to cope with challenges in everyday life after a cancer diagnosis. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Survivorship

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will read about how to cope with challenges in everyday life after a cancer diagnosis. Use the menu to see other pages.

What is survivorship?

The word “survivorship” is complicated because it means different things to different people. Common definitions include:

  • Having no signs of cancer after finishing treatment.

  • Living with, through, and beyond cancer. According to this definition, cancer survivorship begins at diagnosis and continues during treatment and through the rest of a person’s life.

For some, the term “survivorship” itself does not feel right, and they may prefer to use different language to describe and define their experience. Sometimes long-term treatment will be used for months or years to manage or control cancer. Living with cancer indefinitely is not easy, and the health care team can help you manage the challenges that come with it. Everyone has to find their own path to name and navigate the changes and challenges that are the results of their cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Survivors may experience a mixture of feelings, including joy, concern, relief, guilt, and fear. Some people say they appreciate life more after a cancer diagnosis and have gained a greater acceptance of themselves. Others become very anxious about their health and uncertain about coping with everyday life. Feelings of fear and anxiety may still occur as time passes, but these emotions should not be a constant part of your daily life. If they persist, be sure to talk with a member of your health care team.

Survivors may feel some stress when their frequent visits to the health care team end after completing treatment. Often, relationships built with the cancer care team provide a sense of security during treatment, and people miss this source of support. This may be especially true when new worries and challenges surface over time, such as any late effects of treatment, emotional challenges including fear of recurrence, sexual health and fertility concerns, and financial and workplace issues.

Every survivor has individual concerns and challenges. With any challenge, a good first step is being able to recognize your fears and talk about them. Effective coping requires:

  • Understanding the challenge you are facing

  • Thinking through solutions

  • Asking for and allowing the support of others

  • Feeling comfortable with the course of action you choose

Many survivors find it helpful to join an in-person support group or an online community of survivors. This allows you to talk with people who have had similar first-hand experiences. Other options for finding support include talking with a friend or member of your health care team, individual counseling, or asking for assistance at the learning resource center of the place where you received treatment.

A new perspective on your health

For many people, survivorship serves as a strong motivator to make lifestyle changes.

During your recovery from cervical cancer, you are encouraged to follow established guidelines for good health, such as not smoking, limiting alcohol, eating well, exercising regularly, and managing stress. Regular physical activity can help rebuild your strength and energy level. Your health care team can help you create an appropriate exercise plan based upon your needs, physical abilities, and fitness level. Learn more about making healthy lifestyle choices.

It is important to have recommended medical checkups and tests (see Follow-Up Care) to take care of your health.

Talk with your health care team to develop a survivorship care plan that is best for your needs.

Changing role of caregivers

Family members and friends may also go through periods of transition. A caregiver plays a very important role in supporting a person diagnosed with cancer, providing physical, emotional, and practical care on a daily or as-needed basis. Many caregivers become focused on providing this support, especially if the treatment period lasts for many months or longer.

However, as treatment is completed, the caregiver's role often changes. Eventually, the need for caregiving related to the cancer diagnosis will become much less or come to an end. Caregivers can learn more about adjusting to life after caregiving.

Looking for More Survivorship Resources?

For more information about cancer survivorship, explore these related items. Please note that these links will take you to other sections of Cancer.Net:

  • ASCO Answers Guide to Cancer Survivorship: Get this 48-page booklet that helps people transition into life after treatment. It includes blank treatment summary and survivorship care plan forms. The free booklet is available as a PDF, so it is easy to print.

  • Survivorship Resources: Cancer.Net offers information and resources to help survivors cope, including specific sections for children, teens and young adults, and people over age 65. There is also a main section on survivorship for people of all ages.

The next section offers Questions to Ask the Health Care Team to help start conversations with your cancer care team. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Questions to Ask the Health Care Team

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find some questions to ask your doctor or other members of the health care team to help you better understand your diagnosis, treatment plan, and overall care. Use the menu to see other pages.

Talking often with the health care team is important to make informed decisions about your health care. These suggested questions are a starting point to help you learn more about your cancer care and treatment. You are also encouraged to ask additional questions that are important to you. You may want to print this list and bring it to your next appointment. It may also be helpful to ask a family member or friend to come with you to appointments to help take notes.

Questions to ask about prevention of cervical cancer

  • Should I receive the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine?

  • Should I be tested for HPV infection? What does this mean?

  • How often should I have a Pap test?

Questions to ask after a diagnosis of cervical cancer or precancer

  • What is my diagnosis, and what does it mean?

  • What is the stage of the precancer or cancer? What does this mean?

  • Can you explain my pathology report (laboratory test results) to me?

Questions to ask about choosing a treatment and managing side effects

  • What are my treatment options?

  • What types of research are being done for cervical cancer in clinical trials? Do clinical trials offer additional treatment options for me?

  • What treatment plan do you recommend? Why?

  • What is the goal of each treatment? Is it to eliminate the cancer, help me feel better, or both?

  • Who will be part of my health care team, and what does each member do?

  • Who will be leading my overall treatment?

  • What are the possible side effects of this treatment, both in the short term and the long term?

  • Will this treatment affect my ability to become pregnant in the future? Should I talk with a fertility expert before starting treatment?

  • How will this treatment affect my daily life? Will I be able to work, exercise, and perform my usual activities?

  • If I’m worried about managing the costs of cancer care, who can help me?

  • Could this treatment affect my sex life? If so, how and for how long?

  • What can I do to stay as healthy as possible during and after treatment?

  • If I have questions or problems, who should I contact?

Questions to ask about having surgery

  • What type of surgery will I have? Will lymph nodes be removed?

  • How long will the operation take?

  • How long will I be in the hospital?

  • Can you describe what my recovery from surgery will be like?

  • Who should I contact about any side effects I experience? And how soon?

  • What are the possible long-term effects of having this surgery?

Questions to ask about having radiation therapy

  • What type of radiation therapy is recommended?

  • What is the goal of this treatment?

  • How long will it take to give this treatment?

  • What side effects can I expect during treatment?

  • Who should I contact about any side effects I experience? And how soon?

  • Will this treatment cause early menopause?

  • Should I avoid sexual intercourse during this treatment?

  • How often should I dilate the vagina after radiation therapy? For how long?

  • What are the possible long-term or late effects of having this treatment?

  • What can be done to prevent or relieve the side effects?

Questions to ask about having chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or immunotherapy

  • What type of medication is recommended?

  • Will this treatment be combined with other treatments?

  • What is the goal of this treatment?

  • How long will it take to give this treatment?

  • Will I receive this treatment at a hospital or clinic? Or will I take it at home? 

  • What side effects can I expect during treatment?

  • Who should I contact about any side effects I experience? And how soon?

  • What are the possible long-term or late effects of having this treatment?

  • What can be done to prevent or relieve the side effects?

Questions to ask about planning follow-up care

  • What is the chance that the cancer will come back? Should I watch for specific signs or symptoms?

  • What long-term side effects or late effects are possible based on the cancer treatment I received?

  • What follow-up tests will I need, and how often will those tests be needed?

  • How do I get a treatment summary and survivorship care plan to keep in my personal records?

  • When should I return to my primary care doctor for regular medical care?

  • Who will be leading my follow-up care?

  • What survivorship support services are available to me? To my family?

The next section in this guide is Additional Resources. It offers more resources on this website that may be helpful to you. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Cervical Cancer - Additional Resources

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 09/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find some helpful links to other areas of Cancer.Net that provide information about cancer care and treatment. This is the final page of Cancer.Net’s Guide to Cervical Cancer. Use the menu to go back and see other pages.

Cancer.Net includes many other sections about the medical and emotional aspects of cancer for the person diagnosed and their family members and friends. This website is meant to be a resource for you and your loved ones from the time of diagnosis, through treatment, and beyond.

Here are a few links to help you explore other parts of Cancer.Net:

This is the end of Cancer.Net’s Guide to Cervical Cancer. Use the menu to select another section to continue reading this guide.