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Breast Cancer, Male - Introduction

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will find some basic information about this disease and the parts of the body it may affect. This is the first page of Cancer.Net’s Guide to Male Breast Cancer. Use the menu to see other pages. Think of that menu as a roadmap for this entire guide.

Male breast cancer, also called breast cancer in men, is rare. It occurs much less often than breast cancer in women. But the diseases are similar in many ways.

About the breast

The breast is mostly made up of fatty tissue. Within this tissue is a network of lobes, which are made up of small, tube-like structures called lobules. Tiny ducts connect the glands, lobules, and lobes to the nipple, located in the middle of the areola. The areola is the darker area that surrounds the nipple. Blood and lymph vessels also run throughout the breast. Blood nourishes the cells, and the lymph system drains bodily waste products. The lymph vessels connect to lymph nodes, which are the small, bean-shaped organs that help fight infection.

About breast cancer

Cancer begins when healthy cells in the breast change and grow out of control, forming a mass or sheet of cells called a tumor. A tumor can be cancerous or benign. A cancerous tumor is malignant, meaning it can grow and spread to other parts of the body. A benign tumor means the tumor can grow but will not spread.

Breast cancer spreads when the cancer grows into other parts of the body or when breast cancer cells move to other parts of the body through the blood vessels and/or lymph vessels. This is called metastasis.

Although breast cancer most commonly spreads to nearby lymph nodes, it can also spread further through the body to areas such as the bones, lungs, liver, and brain. This is called metastatic or stage IV breast cancer. For more information on this disease, see the guide to Metastatic Breast Cancer.

If breast cancer comes back after initial treatment, it can come back in the breast and/or regional lymph nodes, called a local or regional recurrence. It can also recur elsewhere in the body, called a distant recurrence or metastatic recurrence.

Types of breast cancer

Most breast cancers start in the ducts or lobes and are called ductal carcinomas or lobular carcinomas:

  • Ductal carcinoma. These cancers start in the cells lining the milk ducts. Most breast cancers are ductal carcinomas.

    • Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS). This non-invasive cancer is located only in the duct. This is uncommon in male breast cancer.

    • Invasive or infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC). This is cancer that has spread outside of the duct. Most males with breast cancer have invasive ductal carcinoma.

  • Lobular carcinoma.This starts in the lobules. It is uncommon in male breast cancer.

    • Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS). LCIS is located only in the lobules. LCIS is not considered cancer. However, LCIS is a risk factor for developing invasive breast cancer in either breast (see the Risk Factors section for more information).

    • Invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC). This is cancer that has spread outside the lobules.

Other less common types of breast cancer include:

Breast cancer subtypes

Breast cancer is not a single disease, even within the same type of breast cancer. When you are diagnosed with breast cancer, your doctor will recommend laboratory tests on the cancerous tissue. These tests will help your doctor learn more about the cancer and choose the most effective treatment plan.

Tests can determine if your cancer is:

  • Hormone receptor positive or negative. Breast cancers expressing estrogen receptors (ER) and/or progesterone receptors (PR) are called “hormone receptor positive.” These receptors are proteins found in cells. Tumors that have estrogen receptors are called “ER positive.” Tumors that have progesterone receptors are called “PR positive.” These cancers depend on the hormones estrogen and/or progesterone to grow. Male breast cancer is likely to have receptors for estrogen and progesterone, which means that hormonal therapy is a treatment option for most of these cancers. Breast cancer that does not express estrogen or progesterone receptors is called “hormone receptor negative.”

  • HER2 positive or negative. About 10% to 20% of breast cancers depend on the gene called HER2 to grow. These cancers are called “HER2 positive” and have too many HER2 receptors or copies of the HER2 gene. The HER2 gene makes a protein that is found on the cancer cell and is important for tumor cell growth. This type of cancer may grow more quickly. Cancers that have no HER2 protein are called “HER2 negative.” Cancers that have low levels of the HER2 protein and/or few copies of the HER2 gene are sometimes now called “HER2 low."

  • Triple negative. If a person’s tumor does not express ER, PR, or HER2, the tumor is called “triple negative.” Triple negative cancers tend to be faster growing cancers. This type of breast cancer may be more common in younger people with breast cancer.

Looking for More of an Introduction?

If you would like more of an introduction, explore these related items. Please note that these links will take you to other sections on Cancer.Net:

The next section in this guide is Statistics. It helps explain the number of people who are diagnosed with breast cancer and general survival rates. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Statistics

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 02/2023

ON THIS PAGE: You will find information about the estimated number of people who will be diagnosed with male breast cancer each year. You will also read general information on surviving the disease. Remember, survival rates depend on several factors, and no 2 people with cancer are the same. Use the menu to see other pages.

Every person is different, with different factors influencing their risk of being diagnosed with this cancer and the chance of recovery after a diagnosis. It is important to talk with your doctor about any questions you have around the general statistics provided below and what they may mean for you individually. The original sources for these statistics are provided at the bottom of this page.

How many people are diagnosed with male breast cancer?

In 2023, an estimated 2,800 men in the United States will be diagnosed with breast cancer. Black men have the highest incidence rates of breast cancer (2.7 out of every 100,000 men), followed by White men (1.9 out of every 100,000 men). Black men with breast cancer typically have a lower chance of recovery.

It is estimated that 530 men will die from this disease in the United States in 2023.

What is the survival rate for male breast cancer?

There are different types of statistics that can help doctors evaluate a person’s chance of recovery from male breast cancer. These are called survival statistics. A specific type of survival statistic is called the relative survival rate. It is often used to predict how having cancer may affect life expectancy. Relative survival rate looks at how likely people with male breast cancer are to survive for a certain amount of time after their initial diagnosis or start of treatment compared to the expected survival of similar people without this cancer.

Example: Here is an example to help explain what a relative survival rate means. Please note this is only an example and not specific to this type of cancer. Let’s assume that the 5-year relative survival rate for a specific type of cancer is 90%. “Percent” means how many out of 100. Imagine there are 1,000 people without cancer, and based on their age and other characteristics, you expect 900 of the 1,000 to be alive in 5 years. Also imagine there are another 1,000 people similar in age and other characteristics as the first 1,000, but they all have the specific type of cancer that has a 5-year survival rate of 90%. This means it is expected that 810 of the people with the specific cancer (90% of 900) will be alive in 5 years.

It is important to remember that statistics on the survival rates for people with male breast cancer are only an estimate. They cannot tell an individual person if cancer will or will not shorten their life. Instead, these statistics describe trends in groups of people previously diagnosed with the same disease, including specific stages of the disease.

The 5-year relative survival rate for male breast cancer in the U.S. is 82%.

The survival rates for male breast cancer vary based on several factors. These include the stage of cancer, a person’s age and general health, and how well the treatment plan works.

If the cancer is located only in the breast, the 5-year relative survival rate of male breast cancer is 95%. About 47% of cases are diagnosed at this localized stage. If the cancer has spread to the regional lymph nodes, the 5-year relative survival rate is 83%. If the cancer has spread to a distant part of the body, the 5-year relative survival rate is 19%. Even if the cancer is found at a more advanced stage, new treatments help many people with breast cancer maintain a good quality of life for some time.

Experts measure relative survival rate statistics for male breast cancer every 5 years. This means the estimate may not reflect the results of advancements in how male breast cancer is diagnosed or treated from the last 5 years. Talk with your doctor if you have any questions about this information. Learn more about understanding statistics.

Statistics adapted from the American Cancer Society's (ACS) publications, Cancer Facts and Figures 2023 and Cancer Facts and Figures 2017, and the ACS website. (All sources accessed February 2023.)

The next section in this guide is Risk Factors. It describes the factors that may increase the chance of developing breast cancer. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Risk Factors

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about the factors that increase the chance of developing breast cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

What are the risk factors for male breast cancer?

A risk factor is anything that increases a person’s chance of developing cancer. Although risk factors often influence the risk of developing cancer, most do not directly cause cancer. Some people with several risk factors never develop cancer, while others with no known risk factors do. Knowing your risk factors and talking about them with your doctor may help you make more informed lifestyle and health care choices.

Most breast cancers are sporadic, meaning they develop from damage to a person’s genes that occurs by chance after they are born. This means there is no risk of passing this damage on to a person's children.

Inherited breast cancers are less common, making up 5% to 10% of all breast cancers. They occur when gene changes called mutations or alterations are passed down within a family from generation to generation (see below). In general, a person’s average risk for breast cancer is very low. The following factors can raise a person's risk of breast cancer:

  • Family history of breast disease or presence of a genetic mutation. With male breast cancer, about 1 out of 5 patients has a family history of the disease. They may have inherited a mutation in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes or other genes, such as CHEK2 and PALB2, which can increase their risk for breast cancer. Having a BRCA2 gene mutation brings a 7 in 100 chance of developing male breast cancer, while a BRCA1 gene mutation brings a 1 in 100 chance of developing male breast cancer. According to recommendations from ASCO and jointly from ASCO and the Society of Surgical Oncology (SSO), after a diagnosis of male breast cancer, patients should be offered genetic counseling and genetic testing for BRCA1 and BRCA2 and other inherited cancer risk genes. This testing should be offered whether or not there is a family history of breast cancer. Learn more about BRCA gene mutations and hereditary breast cancer risk in a separate article on this website.

  • Age. The average age for a male breast cancer diagnosis is 65.

  • Elevated estrogen levels. Certain diseases, conditions, or treatments can increase the levels of female hormones such as estrogen, which contributes to the development of breast cancer.

    • Klinefelter’s syndrome is a rare genetic condition in which a male is born with an extra X chromosome. This syndrome may bring an increased risk of breast cancer because they have higher levels of estrogen and lower levels of male hormones called androgens.

    • Liver disease, such as cirrhosis, can change hormone levels and cause lower levels of androgens and higher levels of estrogens.

    • Low doses of estrogen-related drugs that are given for the treatment of prostate cancer may slightly increase the risk of male breast cancer.

  • Lifestyle factors. As with other types of cancer, research continues to show that various lifestyle factors may contribute to the development of breast cancer.

    • Being obese or even overweight increases the risk of breast cancer.

    • Lack of exercise may increase the risk of breast cancer because exercise lowers hormone levels, alters metabolism, and boosts the immune system. Increased physical activity is associated with a decreased risk of developing breast cancer.

    • Drinking 2 or more alcoholic drinks per day may raise the risk of breast cancer. However, this risk factor has not been studied specifically for male breast cancer.

The next section in this guide is Screening. It explains how tests may find cancer before signs or symptoms appear. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Screening

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about screening for breast cancer. You will also learn the risks and benefits of screening. Use the menu to see other pages.

Screening is used to look for cancer before you have any symptoms or signs. Scientists have developed, and continue to develop, tests that can be used to screen a person for specific types of cancer. The overall goals of cancer screening are to:

  • Lower the number of people who die from the disease, or eliminate deaths from cancer altogether

  • Lower the number of people who develop the disease

  • Identify people who may need more frequent screening or a different type of screening because they have a higher risk of developing cancer due to genetic mutations, hereditary syndromes, or family history

Learn more about the basics of cancer screening.

How are people screened for male breast cancer?

Everyone should become familiar with the feel of their breasts and chest wall tissue so they can talk with their doctor if they notice any lump or change. Mammograms are not routinely offered to men. This test may be difficult to perform if there is only a small amount of breast tissue. A doctor may recommend screening mammography if there is a genetic mutation that increases the risk of developing male breast cancer (see Risk Factors).

The next section in this guide is Symptoms and Signs. It explains what changes or medical problems breast cancer can cause. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Symptoms and Signs

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about the changes and medical problems that can be a sign of breast cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

What are the symptoms and signs of male breast cancer?

People with breast cancer may experience one or more of the following symptoms or signs. Symptoms are changes that you can feel in your body. Signs are changes in something measured, like taking your blood pressure or doing a lab test. Together, symptoms and signs can help describe a medical problem. Sometimes, people with breast cancer do not have any of the symptoms and signs described below. Or, the cause of a symptom or sign may be a medical condition that is not cancer.

Talk with your doctor if you have the following signs or symptoms:

  • A lump that feels like a hard knot or a thickening in the breast or under the arm. If there is a small amount of breast tissue, it may be easier to feel a small lump.

  • Any new irregularity on the skin or nipple, such as redness, scaliness, puckering, or a discharge from the nipple

If you are concerned about any changes you experience, please talk with your doctor. Your doctor will try to understand what is causing your symptom(s). They may do an exam and order tests to understand the cause of the problem, which is called a diagnosis.

If cancer is diagnosed, relieving symptoms is an important part of cancer care and treatment. Managing symptoms may also be called "palliative and supportive care," which is not the same as hospice care given at the end of life. You can receive palliative and supportive care at any time during cancer treatment. This type of care focuses on managing symptoms and supporting people who face serious illnesses, such as cancer. Learn more in this guide’s section on Coping with Treatment.

Be sure to talk with your health care team about symptoms you experience, including any new symptoms or a change in symptoms.

The next section in this guide is Diagnosis. It explains what tests may be needed to learn more about the cause of the symptoms. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Diagnosis

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will find a list of common tests, procedures, and scans that doctors use to find the cause of a medical problem. Use the menu to see other pages.

Doctors use many tests to find, or diagnose, cancer. They also do tests to learn if cancer has spread to another part of the body from where it started. If the cancer has spread, it is called metastasis. Doctors may also do tests to learn which treatments could work best.

For most types of cancer, a biopsy is the only sure way for the doctor to know if an area of the body has cancer. In a biopsy, the doctor takes a small sample of tissue for testing in a laboratory. If a biopsy is not possible, the doctor may suggest other tests that will help make a diagnosis.

How male breast cancer is diagnosed

There are different tests used for diagnosing male breast cancer. Not all tests described here will be used for every person. Your doctor may consider these factors when choosing a diagnostic test:

  • The type of cancer suspected

  • Your signs and symptoms

  • Your age and general health

  • The results of earlier medical tests

In addition to a physical examination, the following tests may be used to diagnose breast cancer:

  • Clinical breast examination. During this procedure, the doctor will feel for lumps in the breast tissue and under the arm.

  • Diagnostic mammography. If a lump or suspicious area is found, the doctor will recommend a diagnostic mammogram.

  • Ultrasound. An ultrasound creates an image of the breast tissue using sound waves. An ultrasound can distinguish between a solid mass, which may be cancer, and a fluid-filled cyst, which is usually not cancer.

  • Nipple discharge examination. Fluid from the nipple can be examined under a microscope to look for cancer cells.

  • Biopsy. A biopsy is the only way to make a definite diagnosis, even if other tests can suggest that cancer is present. During biopsy, a small amount of tissue is removed for examination under a microscope. A pathologist analyzes the sample(s). A pathologist is a doctor who specializes in interpreting laboratory tests and evaluating cells, tissues, and organs to diagnose disease. There are different types of biopsies that are classified by the technique and/or size of the needle used to collect the tissue sample.

    • Fine needle aspiration biopsy. This type of biopsy uses a thin needle to remove a small sample of cells.

    • Core needle biopsy. This type of biopsy uses a wider needle to remove a larger sample of tissue. This is usually the preferred type of biopsy to find out whether an abnormality on a physical examination or an imaging test is cancer. A vacuum-assisted biopsy removes several large cores of tissue. Local anesthesia, which is medication to block pain, is used to numb the area and lessen a patient’s discomfort during the procedure.

    • Surgical biopsy. This type of biopsy removes the largest amount of tissue. The biopsy may be incisional, which is the removal of part of the lump, or excisional, which is the removal of the entire lump. Because surgery is best done after a cancer is diagnosed, a surgical biopsy is usually not recommended to diagnose breast cancer. Most often, non-surgical core needle biopsies (see above) are used to diagnose breast cancer. This means that only 1 surgical procedure is usually needed after diagnosis to remove the tumor and to take samples of the lymph nodes.

    • Image-guided biopsy. This biopsy is used when a distinct lump cannot be felt, but an abnormality is seen with an imaging test, such as a mammogram. During this procedure, a needle is guided to the location with the help of an imaging scan, such as mammography, ultrasound, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A stereotactic biopsy is done using mammography to help guide the needle. A small metal clip may be put into the breast to mark where the biopsy sample was taken in case the tissue is cancerous and more surgery is needed. This clip is usually titanium so it will not cause problems with future imaging tests, but check with your doctor before you have additional imaging tests. An image-guided biopsy can be done using a fine needle, core, or vacuum-assisted biopsy (see above), depending on the amount of tissue being removed. Imaging tests may also be used to help do a biopsy on a lump that can be felt in order to help find the best location.

    • Sentinel lymph node biopsy. This is a way to find out if there is cancer in the lymph nodes near the breast. Learn more about sentinel lymph node biopsy in the Types of Treatment section.

Analyzing the biopsy sample

Analyzing the sample(s) removed during the biopsy can help your doctor learn about the specific features of the cancer, which can help determine your treatment options.

  • Tumor features. Examination of the tumor under the microscope is used to determine if the cancer is invasive or in situ, ductal or lobular or other type, and whether the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes. The margins or edges of the tumor are also examined and their distance from the tumor is measured, which is called margin width.

  • ER and PR. Testing for estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) (see Introduction) helps determine both the risk of recurrence and the type of treatment that is most likely to lower the risk of recurrence. ER and PR are often measured for ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) as well. Generally, hormonal therapy (see Types of Treatment) is an option for ER-positive and/or PR-positive cancers. Learn about ER and PR testing recommendations in the Diagnosis section of the Guide to Breast Cancer.

  • HER2. The HER2 status (see Introduction) helps determine whether drugs that target the HER2 receptor might help treat the cancer (see Types of Treatment). About half of HER2-positive tumors also have hormone receptors and can benefit from both hormone and HER2-targeted therapy. Learn about the recommendations for HER2 testing in the Diagnosis section of the Guide to Breast Cancer.

  • Grade. The tumor grade is also determined from a biopsy. Grade describes how much cancer cells look like healthy cells when viewed under a microscope. The doctor compares the cancerous tissue with healthy tissue. Healthy tissue usually contains many different types of cells grouped together. If the cancer looks similar to healthy tissue and has different cell groupings, it is called "well differentiated" or "grade 1" or a "low-grade tumor." If the cancerous tissue looks very different from healthy tissue, it is called "poorly differentiated" or "grade 3" or a "high-grade tumor." The cancer’s grade may help the doctor predict how quickly the cancer will spread. In general, the lower the tumor’s grade, the better the chance that the cancer will not return.

Genomic tests to predict risk of recurrence

Tests that take an even closer look at the biology of the tumor are commonly used to understand more about a person's breast cancer, particularly for a cancer that has not spread to other organs. These tests can help estimate the risk of cancer recurrence in the years after diagnosis. They can also predict whether a treatment will be helpful to reduce the risk of cancer recurrence. This helps some patients avoid the possible side effects of a treatment that is not likely to work well.

The tests described below are typically done on tissue removed during surgery. Most patients will not need an extra biopsy or more surgery. For more information about genomic tests, what they mean, and how the results might affect your treatment plan, talk with your doctor.

  • Oncotype Dx™. This test is an option for people with ER-positive and/or PR-positive, HER2-negative breast cancer that has not spread to the lymph nodes as well as in some cases where the cancer has spread to up to 3 lymph nodes. This test can help patients and their doctors make decisions about whether chemotherapy should be added to hormonal therapy. This test looks at 16 cancer-related genes and 5 reference genes to calculate a “recurrence score” that estimates the risk of the cancer coming back within 10 years after diagnosis. The recurrence score is used to guide recommendations on the use of chemotherapy. It appears to provide equally helpful information for men as it does for women. Read about the recommendations for using Oncotype Dx in the Diagnosis section of the Guide to Breast Cancer.

  • Mammaprint™. This test is an option for people with ER-positive and/or PR-positive, HER2-negative breast cancer that has not spread to the lymph nodes or has only spread to 1 to 3 lymph nodes. This test uses information from 70 genes to estimate the risk of recurrence for early-stage breast cancer. For people with a high risk of the cancer coming back, this test can help patients and their doctors make decisions about whether chemotherapy should be added to hormonal therapy. This test is not recommended for people with a low risk of the cancer coming back.

  • Additional tests. There are additional tests that may be options for people with ER-positive and/or PR-positive, HER2-negative breast cancer that has not spread to the lymph nodes. These tests include PAM50 (Prosigna™), EndoPredict, and uPA/PAI, which can also be used to estimate how likely it is that a cancer will spread to other parts of the body.

The tests listed above have not been shown to be useful to predict risk of recurrence for people with HER2-positive or triple-negative breast cancer. Therefore, none of these tests are currently recommended for breast cancer that is HER2 positive or triple negative. Your doctor will use other factors to help recommend treatment options for you.

Talk with your doctor for more information about genomic tests, what they mean, and how the results might affect your treatment plan.

Blood tests

The doctor may also need to do several types of blood tests to learn more about the cancer:

  • Complete blood count. A complete blood count (CBC) is used to measure the number of different types of cells, such as red blood cells and white blood cells, in a sample of blood. It is done to check that your bone marrow is functioning well.

  • Serum chemistry. Serum chemistry tests are often done to look at minerals in your blood, such as potassium and sodium, and to evaluate kidney function. Serum chemistry may also include tests that evaluate the health of the liver.

  • Hepatitis tests. While not currently the standard of care, these tests are occasionally used to check for evidence of prior exposure to hepatitis B and/or hepatitis C. If you have evidence of an active hepatitis B infection, you may need to take a special medication to suppress the virus before you receive chemotherapy. Without this medication, the chemotherapy can cause the virus to grow and damage the liver. Learn more about hepatitis B screening before treatment.

Additional imaging tests

Additional imaging tests may not be done until after surgery. These tests are generally only recommended for people with higher-stage disease. Most people with early-stage breast cancer do not need additional imaging tests. Read the Stages section for more information.

Whether your doctor recommends imaging tests to find out if the cancer has spread depends on the following factors:

  • Your medical history and symptoms

  • The size and type of tumor in the breast

  • Whether the cancer has spread to lymph nodes

  • The results of your physical examination

The tests listed below may not be recommended for all patients. Talk with your doctor if you have questions about a specific test, including why it is or is not recommended.

  • X-ray. An x-ray creates a picture of the structures inside of the body using a small amount of radiation. A chest x-ray may be used to look for cancer that has spread from the breast to the lungs.

  • Bone scan. A bone scan may be used to look for spread of cancer to the bones. A radioactive dye or tracer is injected into a patient’s vein, and then the scan is performed several hours later using a special camera. The amount of radiation in the tracer is too low to be harmful. The tracer collects in areas of the bone that are healing, which occurs in response to damage from the cancer cells. The areas where the tracer collects stand out on the image compared to healthy bone, which appears lighter. Some cancers do not cause the same healing response and will not show up on the bone scan. Areas of advanced arthritis or healing after a fracture will also stand out.

  • Computed tomography (CT or CAT) scan. A CT scan may be used to look for tumors in organs outside of the breast, such as the lung, liver, bone, and lymph nodes. A CT scan takes pictures of the inside of the body using x-rays taken from different angles. A computer combines these pictures into a detailed, 3-dimensional image that shows abnormalities, including most tumors. A CT scan can be used to measure the tumor’s size and find out if it is shrinking with treatment. A contrast dye may be injected into a patient’s vein before the scan to provide better detail.

  • Positron emission tomography (PET) scan. A PET scan is a way to create pictures of organs and tissues inside the body. A PET scan may also be used to find out whether the cancer has spread to organs outside of the breast. A PET scan is usually combined with a CT scan (see above). A small amount of a radioactive sugar substance is injected into a patient’s vein. This sugar substance is then taken up by cells that use the most energy because they are actively dividing. Because cancer cells tend to use energy actively, they absorb more of the radioactive substance. However, the amount of radiation in the substance is too low to be harmful. A scanner then detects this substance to produce images of the inside of the body. Areas that are most active appear as bright spots, and the intensity of the brightness can be measured to better describe these areas. The CT scan combined with the PET scan may be used to measure the size of a tumor and to determine the location of the bright spots more accurately. A PET scan will also show any abnormalities in the bone, similar to a bone scan.

After diagnostic tests are completed, your doctor will review the results with you. If the diagnosis is cancer, these results also help the doctor describe the amount of cancer in the body. This is called staging. If there are suspicious areas found outside of the breast, you may need another biopsy, if possible, to confirm whether or not the abnormal area is cancer.

The next section in this guide is Stages. It explains the system doctors use to describe the extent of the disease. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Stages

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will learn about how doctors describe a cancer’s growth or spread. This is called the stage. Use the menu to see other pages.

What is cancer staging?

Staging is a way of describing where the cancer is located, how much the cancer has grown, and if or where it has spread. Doctors use diagnostic tests to find out the cancer's stage, so staging may not be complete until all the tests are finished. Knowing the stage helps the doctor recommend the best kind of treatment and can help predict a patient's prognosis, which is the chance of recovery. There are different stage descriptions for different types of cancer.

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TNM staging system

The most commonly used tool that doctors use to describe the stage is the TNM system. Doctors use the results from diagnostic tests and scans to answer these questions:

  • Tumor (T): How large is the primary tumor? Where is it located?

  • Node (N): Has the tumor spread to the lymph nodes? If so, where and how many?

  • Metastasis (M): Has the cancer spread to other parts of the body? If so, where and how much?

The results are combined to determine the stage of cancer for each person.

There are 5 stages: stage 0 (zero), which is noninvasive ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), and stages I through IV (1 through 4), which are used for invasive breast cancer. The stage provides a common way of describing the cancer, so doctors can work together to plan the best treatments.

Staging can be clinical or pathological. Clinical staging is based on the results of tests done before surgery, which may include physical examinations, ultrasound, and MRI scans. Pathologic staging is based on what is found during surgery to remove breast tissue and lymph nodes. The results are usually available several days after surgery. In general, pathological staging provides the most information to determine a patient’s prognosis.

Here are more details on each part of the TNM system for male breast cancer:

Tumor (T)

Using the TNM system, the “T” plus a letter or number (0 to 4) is used to describe the size and location of the tumor. Tumor size is measured in centimeters (cm) or millimeters (mm).

If the doctor evaluates the breast tumor before surgery based on other tests and/or a physical examination, a letter “c” for clinical staging is placed in front of the T. If the doctor evaluates the breast tumor after surgery, which is a more accurate assessment, a letter “p” for pathological staging is placed in front of the T.

Stage may also be divided into smaller groups that help describe the tumor in even more detail. Specific tumor stage information in listed below.

TX: The primary tumor cannot be evaluated.

T0 (T zero): There is no evidence of cancer in the breast.

Tis: This refers to carcinoma in situ. The cancer is confined within the ducts of the breast tissue and has not spread into the surrounding tissue of the breast.

  • Tis (DCIS): DCIS is a noninvasive cancer, but if not removed, it may develop into an invasive breast cancer later. DCIS means that cancer cells have been found in breast ducts and have not spread past the layer of tissue where they began.

T1: The tumor in the breast is 20 mm or smaller in size at its widest area. This is a little less than an inch. This stage is then broken into 4 substages depending on the size of the tumor:

  • T1mi is a tumor that is 1 mm or smaller.

  • T1a is a tumor that is larger than 1 mm but 5 mm or smaller.

  • T1b is a tumor that is larger than 5 mm but 10 mm or smaller.

  • T1c is a tumor that is larger than 10 mm but 20 mm or smaller.

T2: The tumor is larger than 20 mm but not larger than 50 mm.

T3: The tumor is larger than 50 mm.

T4: The tumor falls into 1 of the following groups:

  • T4a means the tumor has grown into the chest wall.

  • T4b is when the tumor has grown into the skin.

  • T4c is cancer that has grown into the chest wall and the skin.

  • T4d is inflammatory breast cancer.

Node (N)

The “N” in the TNM staging system stands for lymph nodes. These small, bean-shaped organs help fight infection. Lymph nodes near where the cancer started are called regional lymph nodes. Regional lymph nodes for breast cancer include:

  • Lymph nodes located under the arm, called the axillary lymph nodes

  • Lymph nodes above and below the collarbone

  • Lymph nodes under the breastbone, called the internal mammary lymph nodes

Lymph nodes in other parts of the body are called distant lymph nodes. As explained above, if the doctor evaluates the lymph nodes before surgery based on other tests and/or a physical examination, a letter “c” for “clinical” staging is placed in front of the N. If the doctor evaluates the lymph nodes after surgery, which is a more accurate assessment, a letter “p” for “pathologic” staging is placed in front of the N. The information below describes the pathologic staging.

NX: The lymph nodes were not evaluated.

N0 (N zero): Either of the following:

  • No cancer was found in the lymph nodes.

  • Only areas of cancer 0.2 mm or smaller are in the lymph nodes.

N1: The cancer has spread to 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes and/or the internal mammary lymph nodes. If the cancer in the lymph node is larger than 0.2 mm but 2 mm or smaller, it is called "micrometastatic" (N1mi).

N2: The cancer has spread to 4 to 9 axillary lymph nodes. Or, it has spread to the internal mammary lymph nodes, but not to the axillary lymph nodes.

N3: The cancer has spread to 10 or more axillary lymph nodes. Or, it has spread to the lymph nodes located under the clavicle, or collarbone. It may have also spread to the internal mammary lymph nodes. Cancer that has spread to the lymph nodes above the clavicle, called the supraclavicular lymph nodes, is also described as N3.

If there is cancer in the lymph nodes, knowing how many lymph nodes are involved and where they are helps doctors to plan treatment. The pathologist can find out the number of axillary lymph nodes that contain cancer after they are removed during surgery. It is not common to remove the supraclavicular or internal mammary lymph nodes during surgery. If there is cancer in these lymph nodes, treatment other than surgery, such as radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and hormonal therapy, may be used first.

Metastasis (M)

The “M” in the TNM system describes whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body, called metastasis. This is no longer considered early-stage or locally advanced cancer. For more information on metastatic breast cancer, see the Guide to Metastatic Breast Cancer.

MX: Distant spread cannot be evaluated.

M0 (M zero): The disease has not metastasized.

M0 (i+): There is no clinical or radiographic evidence of distant metastases. Microscopic evidence of tumor cells is found in the blood, bone marrow, or other lymph nodes that are no larger than 0.2 mm.

M1: There is evidence of metastasis to another part of the body, meaning there are breast cancer cells growing in other organs.

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Stage groups for male breast cancer

Doctors assign the stage of the cancer by combining the T, N, and M classifications (see above), the tumor grade, and the results of ER, PR, and HER2 testing. This information is used to help determine your prognosis (see Diagnosis). The simpler approach to explaining the stage of breast cancer is to use just the T, N, and M classifications. This is the approach used below to describe the different stages.

Most people are anxious to learn the exact stage of the cancer. Your doctor will generally confirm the stage of the cancer when the testing after surgery is finalized, usually about 5 to 7 days after surgery. When systemic or whole body treatment is given before surgery, called neoadjuvant therapy, the stage of the cancer is primarily determined clinically. Doctors may refer to stage I to stage IIA cancer as early stage, and stage IIB to stage III cancer as locally advanced.

Stage 0: Stage zero (0) describes disease that is only in the ducts of the breast tissue and has not spread to the surrounding tissue of the breast. It is also called noninvasive cancer (Tis, N0, M0).

Stage IA: The tumor is small, invasive, and has not spread to the lymph nodes (T1, N0, M0).

Stage IB: Cancer has spread to the lymph nodes and the cancer in the lymph node is larger than 0.2 mm but less than 2 mm in size. There is either no evidence of a tumor in the breast or the tumor in the breast is 20 mm or smaller (T0 or T1, N1mi, M0).

Stage IIA: Any 1 of these conditions:

  • There is no evidence of a tumor in the breast, but the cancer has spread to 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes. It has not spread to distant parts of the body (T0, N1, M0).

  • The tumor is 20 mm or smaller and has spread to 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes (T1, N1, M0).

  • The tumor is larger than 20 mm but not larger than 50 mm and has not spread to the axillary lymph nodes (T2, N0, M0).

Stage IIB: Either of these conditions:

  • The tumor is larger than 20 mm but not larger than 50 mm and has spread to 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes (T2, N1, M0).

  • The tumor is larger than 50 mm but has not spread to the axillary lymph nodes (T3, N0, M0).

Stage IIIA: The cancer of any size has spread to 4 to 9 axillary lymph nodes or to internal mammary lymph nodes. It has not spread to other parts of the body (any T, N2, M0). Stage IIIA may also be a tumor larger than 50 mm that has spread to 1 to 3 axillary lymph nodes (T3, N1, M0).

Stage IIIB: The tumor has spread to the chest wall or caused swelling or ulceration of the breast or the disease is diagnosed as inflammatory breast cancer. It may or may not have spread to up to 9 axillary or internal mammary lymph nodes. It has not spread to other parts of the body (T4; N0, N1, or N2; M0).

Stage IIIC: A tumor of any size that has spread to 10 or more axillary lymph nodes, the internal mammary lymph nodes, and/or the lymph nodes under the collarbone. It has not spread to other parts of the body (any T, N3, M0).

Stage IV (metastatic): The tumor can be any size and has spread to other organs, such as the bones, lungs, brain, liver, distant lymph nodes, or chest wall (any T, any N, M1). Metastatic cancer found when the cancer is first diagnosed occurs about 5% to 6% of the time. This may be called de novo metastatic breast cancer. Most commonly, metastatic breast cancer is found after a previous diagnosis of early breast cancer. Learn more about metastatic breast cancer in a separate guide on this website.

Recurrent: Recurrent cancer is cancer that has come back after treatment. It can be described as local, regional, and/or distant. If the cancer does return, there will be another round of tests to learn about the extent of the recurrence. These tests and scans are often similar to those done at the time of the original diagnosis.

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Used with permission of the American College of Surgeons, Chicago, Illinois. The original and primary source for this information is the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual, Eighth Edition (2017), published by Springer International Publishing.

Information about the cancer’s stage will help the doctor recommend a specific treatment plan. The next section in this guide is Types of Treatment. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Types of Treatment

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will learn about the different types of treatments doctors use for people with breast cancer. Use the menu to see other pages.

This section explains the types of treatments, also known as therapies, that are the standard of care for male breast cancer. “Standard of care” means the best treatments known. Information in this section is based on medical standards of care for male breast cancer in the United States. Treatment options can vary from one place to another.

When making treatment plan decisions, you are encouraged to discuss with your doctor whether clinical trials offer additional options to consider. A clinical trial is a research study that tests a new approach to treatment. Doctors learn through clinical trials whether a new treatment is safe, effective, and possibly better than the standard treatment.

Clinical trials can test a new drug, a new combination of standard treatments, or new doses of standard drugs or other treatments. There are 3 main phases of clinical trials. Phase I clinical trials help learn if a new drug or treatment is safe for people. Phase II clinical trials tell doctors how safe the treatment is and how well it works, including for a specific type of cancer. Phase III clinical trials test treatments that worked well for volunteers in a phase II clinical trial, and usually compare those new treatments to standard drugs. Clinical trials are an option for all stages of cancer. Your doctor can help you consider all your treatment options. Learn more about clinical trials in the About Clinical Trials and Latest Research sections of this guide.

How male breast cancer is treated

In cancer care, doctors specializing in different areas of cancer treatment, called oncologists, work together to create a patient’s overall treatment plan that combines different types of treatments. This is called a multidisciplinary team. Cancer care teams include a variety of other health care professionals, such as physician assistants, nurse practitioners, oncology nurses, social workers, pharmacists, genetic counselors, dietitians, physical therapists, occupational therapists, and others. Learn more about the clinicians who provide cancer care.

The biology and behavior of a breast cancer affects the treatment plan. Some tumors are small but grow fast, while others are large and grow slowly. Treatment options and recommendations are very personalized and depend on several factors, including:

  • The stage of the tumor

  • The tumor’s subtype, including hormone receptor status (ER, PR) and HER2 status (see Introduction)

  • Genomic markers, such as Oncotype DX™ or Mammaprint™ (see Diagnosis)

  • The patient’s age, general health, and preferences

  • The presence of known mutations in inherited breast cancer genes, such as BRCA1 or BRCA2

Even though the breast cancer care team will specifically tailor the treatment for each patient and the breast cancer, there are some general steps for treating breast cancer.

For both ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and stage 1 invasive breast cancer, doctors generally recommend surgery to remove the tumor as the first treatment. To make sure that the entire tumor is removed, the surgeon will also remove a small area of healthy tissue around the tumor. Although the goal of surgery is to remove all of the visible cancer, microscopic cells can remain after surgery, either in the breast or elsewhere. In some situations, this means that another surgery could be needed to remove remaining cancer cells.

For larger cancers, smaller cancers that are growing more quickly, or cancers of certain subtypes, doctors may recommend systemic treatment with chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, or hormonal therapy before surgery, called neoadjuvant or preoperative therapy. There may be several potential benefits to having other treatments before surgery:

  • Surgery may be easier to perform afterwards

  • Your doctor may find out if certain treatments work well for the cancer

  • You may be able to try a new treatment through a clinical trial

After surgery, the next step in managing early-stage breast cancer is to lower the risk of recurrence and to get rid of any remaining cancer cells in the breast or elsewhere in the body. If present, these cancer cells are undetectable but are believed to be responsible for both local and distant recurrence of cancer.

Treatment given after surgery is called adjuvant therapy. Adjuvant therapies may include:

  • Radiation therapy

  • Chemotherapy

  • Targeted therapy

  • Hormonal therapy

  • Immunotherapy

Whether adjuvant therapy is needed depends on how likely it is that any cancer cells could still be in the breast or body and how well a specific treatment is likely to work to treat the cancer. The choice of adjuvant therapy depends on the cancer’s stage, features, and a patient’s health and preferences. Although adjuvant therapy lowers the risk of recurrence, there will still be some risk of recurrence.

Along with staging, other tools can help estimate prognosis and help you and your doctor make decisions about adjuvant therapy. There are also tests that can predict the risk of recurrence for your specific tumor by testing the tumor tissue (see Diagnosis). These may also be used to better understand the risks from the cancer and whether chemotherapy will help reduce those risks.

Take time to learn about all of your treatment options and be sure to ask questions about things that are unclear. Talk with your doctor about the goals of each treatment and what you can expect during and after treatment. These types of conversations are called “shared decision-making.” Shared decision-making is when you and your doctors work together to choose treatments that fit your goals for your care. Shared decision-making is important for breast cancer because there are multiple different treatment options. Learn more about making treatment decisions.

The common types of treatments used for male breast cancer are described below. Your care plan also includes treatment for symptoms and side effects, an important part of cancer care.

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Surgery

Surgery is the removal of the tumor and some surrounding healthy tissue during an operation. Surgery is also used to examine the nearby underarm or axillary lymph nodes. A surgical oncologist is a doctor who specializes in treating cancer with surgery. 

  • A lumpectomy is the removal of the tumor and a small, cancer-free margin of healthy tissue around the tumor. If there is not a lot of breast tissue, a lumpectomy may not be an option.

  • A mastectomy is the surgical removal of the entire breast. This is the more commonly performed procedure for male breast cancer.

When surgery to remove the cancer is not possible, it is called inoperable or unresectable. The doctor will then recommend treating the cancer in other ways. Chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, and/or hormonal therapy may be given to shrink the cancer (see below). 

Lymph node removal and analysis

Cancer cells can be found in the axillary lymph nodes in some cancers. It is important to find out whether any of the lymph nodes near the breast contain cancer. This information is used to determine treatment and prognosis. Most patients with invasive cancer will have either a sentinel lymph node biopsy or an axillary lymph node dissection.

  • Sentinel lymph node biopsy. In a sentinel lymph node biopsy (also called a sentinel node biopsy or SNB), the surgeon finds and removes 1 to 3 or more lymph nodes from under the arm that receive lymph drainage from the breast. This procedure helps avoid removing a larger number of lymph nodes with an axillary lymph node dissection (see below) for patients whose sentinel lymph nodes are mostly free of cancer. The smaller lymph node procedure helps lower the risk of several possible side effects, including swelling of the arm called lymphedema, the risk of numbness, and arm movement and range-of-motion problems. Such side effects are long-lasting issues that can severely affect a person’s quality of life. Importantly, the risk of lymphedema increases with the number of lymph nodes and lymph vessels that are removed or damaged during cancer treatment. This means that people who have a sentinel lymph node biopsy tend to be less likely to develop lymphedema than those who have an axillary lymph node dissection (see below).

    To find the sentinel lymph node, the surgeon injects a dye and/or a radioactive tracer into the area of the cancer and/or around the nipple. The dye or tracer travels to the lymph nodes, arriving at the sentinel node first. The surgeon can find the lymph node when it turns color if the dye is used, or when it gives off radiation if the tracer is used. The pathologist then carefully examines these lymph nodes for cancer cells.

    If the sentinel lymph node(s) are cancer-free, research has shown that it is likely that the remaining lymph nodes will also be free of cancer. This means that no more lymph nodes need to be removed. If only 1 or 2 sentinel lymph nodes have cancer and you plan to have a lumpectomy and radiation therapy to the entire breast, an axillary lymph node dissection may not be needed. In general, when there is early-stage male breast cancer that can be removed with surgery and whose underarm lymph nodes are not enlarged, sentinel lymph node biopsy is the standard of care. However, in certain situations, it may be appropriate to not undergo any axillary surgery. You should talk with your surgeon about whether this may be the right approach for you.

    A sentinel lymph node biopsy alone may not be done if there is obvious evidence of cancer in the lymph nodes before any surgery. In this situation, a full axillary lymph node dissection is preferred (see below).

  • Axillary lymph node dissection. In an axillary lymph node dissection, the surgeon removes many lymph nodes from under the arm. These are then examined for cancer cells by a pathologist. The actual number of lymph nodes removed varies from person to person. An axillary lymph node dissection may not be needed all the time with early-stage male breast cancer with small amounts of cancer in the sentinel lymph nodes. A patient who has a smaller tumor (less than 5 cm) and no more than 2 sentinel lymph nodes with cancer and who is having a lumpectomy and radiation therapy may avoid a full axillary lymph node dissection. This helps reduce the risk of side effects and does not decrease survival. If cancer is found in the sentinel lymph node, whether additional surgery is needed to remove more lymph nodes depends on the specific situation.

Most people with invasive breast cancer will have either a sentinel lymph node biopsy or an axillary lymph node dissection. However, these procedures may be optional for some patients older than 65. This depends on how large the lymph nodes are, the tumor’s stage, and the person’s overall health.

Summary of surgical options

To summarize, surgical treatment options include the following:

  • Removal of cancer in the breast through either lumpectomy or mastectomy

  • Lymph node evaluation through sentinel lymph node biopsy and/or axillary lymph node dissection

Before surgery, talk with your health care team about the possible side effects from the specific surgery you will have.

Learn more about the basics of cancer surgery.

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Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is the use of high-energy x-rays or other particles to kill cancer cells. A doctor who specializes in giving radiation therapy to treat cancer is called a radiation oncologist. A radiation therapy regimen, or schedule, usually consists of a specific number of treatments given over a set period of time.

The most common type of radiation treatment is called external-beam radiation therapy, which is radiation given from a machine outside the body. When radiation treatment is given using a probe in the operating room, it is called intra-operative radiation therapy. When radiation therapy is given by placing radioactive sources into the tumor, it is called brachytherapy. Although the research results are encouraging, intra-operative radiation therapy and brachytherapy are not widely used for breast cancer. These types of radiation therapy are typically only used for a small cancer that has not spread to the lymph nodes. 

Adjuvant (after surgery) radiation therapy is recommended for some people depending on the type of surgery, the size of their tumor, the number of cancerous lymph nodes under the arm, and the width of the tissue margin around the tumor removed by the surgeon.

Radiation therapy can cause side effects, including fatigue, swelling of the breast, redness and/or skin discoloration, hyperpigmentation, and pain or burning in the skin where the radiation was directed, sometimes with blistering or peeling. Very rarely, a small amount of the lung can be affected by the radiation, causing pneumonitis, a radiation-related swelling of the lung tissue. This risk depends on the size of the area that received radiation therapy, and it tends to heal with time. In the past, with older equipment and radiation therapy techniques, people who received treatment for breast cancer on the left side of the body had a small increase in the long-term risk of heart disease. Modern techniques, such as respiratory gating, which uses technology to guide the delivery of radiation while a patient breathes, are now able to spare the vast majority of the heart from the effects of radiation therapy.

Learn more about the basics of radiation therapy.

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Therapies using medication

The treatment plan may include medications to destroy cancer cells. Medication may be given through the bloodstream to reach cancer cells throughout the body. When a drug is given this way, it is called systemic therapy. Medication may also be given locally, which is when the medication is applied directly to the cancer or kept in a single part of the body.

This treatment is generally prescribed by a medical oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating cancer with medication.

Medications are often given through an intravenous (IV) tube placed into a vein using a needle or as a pill or capsule that is swallowed (orally). If you are given oral medications to take at home, be sure to ask your health care team about how to safely store and handle them.

The types of medications used for breast cancer include:

  • Chemotherapy

  • Hormonal therapy

  • Targeted therapy

  • Immunotherapy

Each of these types of therapies is discussed below in more detail. A person may receive 1 type of medication at a time or a combination of medications given at the same time. They can also be given as part of a treatment plan that includes surgery and/or radiation therapy.

The medications used to treat breast cancer are continually being evaluated. Talking with your doctor is often the best way to learn about the medications prescribed for you, their purpose, and their potential side effects or interactions with other medications.

It is also important to let your doctor know if you are taking any other prescription or over-the-counter medications or supplements. Herbs, supplements, and other drugs can interact with cancer medications, causing unwanted side effects or reduced effectiveness. Learn more about your prescriptions by using searchable drug databases.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to destroy cancer cells, usually by keeping the cancer cells from growing, dividing, and making more cells.

Chemotherapy is given to reduce the risk of recurrence of breast cancer. When it is given before surgery, it is also used to try to shrink a large tumor and make surgery easier. This is called neoadjuvant or preoperative chemotherapy. When it is given after surgery, it is called adjuvant chemotherapy.

A chemotherapy regimen, or schedule, usually consists of a specific treatment schedule of drugs given at repeating intervals for a set period of time. Chemotherapy may be given on many different schedules depending on what worked best in clinical trials for that specific type of regimen. It may be given once a week, once every 2 weeks, once every 3 weeks, or even once every 4 weeks. Common types of chemotherapy that are used to treat early stage or locally advanced breast cancer include:

  • Capecitabine (Xeloda, available as a generic drug)

  • Carboplatin (available as a generic drug)

  • Cyclophosphamide (available as a generic drug)

  • Docetaxel (Taxotere, available as a generic drug)

  • Doxorubicin (available as a generic drug)

  • Epirubicin (Ellence, available as a generic drug)

  • Fluorouracil (5-FU, available as a generic drug)

  • Methotrexate (Rheumatrex, Trexall, available as a generic drug)

  • Paclitaxel (Taxol, available as a generic drug)

  • Protein-bound paclitaxel (Abraxane)

A patient may receive 1 drug at a time or combinations of different drugs given at the same time. Research has shown that combinations of certain drugs are sometimes more effective than single drugs for adjuvant treatment. The following combinations of drugs may be used as neoadjuvant or adjuvant therapy to treat breast cancer:

  • AC (doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide)

  • AC or EC (doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide or epirubicin and cyclophosphamide) followed by T (paclitaxel or docetaxel)

  • CAF (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and 5-FU)

  • CEF (cyclophosphamide, epirubicin, and 5-FU)

  • CMF (cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, and 5-FU)

  • EC (epirubicin and cyclophosphamide)

  • TAC (docetaxel, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide)

  • TC (docetaxel and cyclophosphamide)

Therapies that target the HER2 receptor may be given with chemotherapy for HER2-positive breast cancer (see "Targeted therapy," below). Immunotherapy may be given with chemotherapy for triple-negative breast cancer (see "Immunotherapy," below).

For patients with triple-negative breast cancer who had cancer remaining in the breast tissue or lymph nodes that was removed at the time of surgery, adjuvant treatment with capecitabine for 6 months is often recommended.

The side effects of chemotherapy depend on the individual, the drug(s) used, and the schedule and dose. These side effects can include fatigue, risk of infection, nausea and vomiting, hair loss, loss of appetite, numbness and tingling, and diarrhea or constipation. These side effects can often be very successfully prevented or managed during treatment with supportive medications, including medications to boost the immune system, and most side effects usually go away after treatment is finished. Some side effects, such as numbness and tingling of the fingers and toes and loss of fertility, often continue after treatment. Rarely, long-term side effects may occur, such as heart damage or secondary cancers. Many patients are able to continue taking care of their families, working, and exercising during treatment. But each person’s experience is different. Talk with your health care team about the possible side effects of your specific chemotherapy plan.

Learn more about the basics of chemotherapy.

Learn more about chemotherapy options for people with metastatic breast cancer in the Guide to Metastatic Breast Cancer.

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Hormonal therapy

Hormonal therapy, also called endocrine therapy, is a very important treatment for tumors that test positive for either estrogen or progesterone receptors (called ER positive or PR positive; see Introduction). Hormone receptor-positive tumors use hormones to fuel their growth. Blocking the body’s hormones may then slow the growth of the tumor and kill the cancer cells. Because most male breast cancer is ER-positive disease, hormonal therapy is often part of the treatment plan.

ASCO recommends that patients who have had surgery to remove a hormone receptor-positive male breast cancer receive hormonal therapy for at least 5 years. It may be taken for up to 10 years, especially if the cancer has a higher risk of returning. How long to continue hormonal therapy depends on the stage of cancer, the risk of it returning, and any side effects you are experiencing.

Hormonal therapy after surgery may be used by itself or after chemotherapy. Hormonal therapy options include:

  • Tamoxifen (available as a generic drug). This is the primary hormonal therapy that ASCO recommends with all stages of hormone receptor-positive male breast cancer. Tamoxifen blocks estrogen from binding to breast cancer cells. If the patient has taken tamoxifen for 5 years without serious side effects and still has a high risk of the male breast cancer coming back, 5 more years of tamoxifen therapy may be offered.

  • Aromatase inhibitors (AIs, all available as generic drugs). These include anastrozole (Arimidex), exemestane (Aromasin), and letrozole (Femara). AIs decrease the amount of estrogen made by the body. This type of treatment is effective in treating all stages of breast cancer in postmenopausal women, but there is not much information on AI use for male breast cancer. Caution is urged in using AIs with male breast cancer because, if the patient still has testicles (testes), these treatments could cause androgen levels to increase. If an AI is used, an additional injection medication to decrease androgen production may be offered as well.

Side effects of hormonal therapy can include hot flashes, decreased sexual desire or ability, leg cramps, mood swings, bone loss, and blood clots.

After a diagnosis of male breast cancer, a person should not receive testosterone or androgen supplementation.

Learn more about the basics of hormone therapy for cancer. For people with metastatic breast cancer, learn more about hormonal therapy options in the Guide to Metastatic Breast Cancer.

This information is based on ASCO recommendations for Management of Male Breast Cancer. Please note that this link takes you to another ASCO website.

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Targeted therapy

Targeted therapy is a treatment that targets the cancer’s specific genes, proteins, or the tissue environment that contributes to cancer growth and survival. These treatments are very focused and work differently than chemotherapy. This type of treatment blocks the growth and spread of cancer cells and limits damage to healthy cells.

Not all tumors have the same targets. To find the most effective treatment, your doctor may run tests to identify the genes, proteins, and other factors in your tumor. In addition, research studies continue to find out more about specific molecular targets and new treatments directed at them. Learn more about the basics of targeted treatments.

The first approved targeted therapies for breast cancer were hormonal therapies. Then, HER2-targeted therapies were approved to treat HER2-positive breast cancer.

HER2-targeted therapy
  • Trastuzumab (Herceptin, Herzuma, Ogivri, Ontruzant, Hylecta). This drug is approved as an adjuvant therapy for non-metastatic HER2-positive breast cancer. Currently, most patients with stage I to stage III breast cancer (see Stages) should receive a trastuzumab-based regimen, often including a combination of trastuzumab with chemotherapy followed by 1 year of adjuvant trastuzumab. Patients receiving trastuzumab have a small (2% to 5%) risk of heart problems. This risk is increased if a patient has other risk factors for heart disease or receives chemotherapy that also increases the risk of heart problems at the same time. These heart problems may go away and can be treatable with medication. This drug is given by vein every 1 to 3 weeks or by injection (Hylecta) every 3 weeks.

  • Pertuzumab (Perjeta). This drug is approved for stage II and stage III breast cancer in combination with trastuzumab and chemotherapy. This drug can cause diarrhea and skin rash. This drug is given by vein every 3 weeks.

  • Pertuzumab, trastuzumab, and hyaluronidase–zzxf (Phesgo). This combination drug, which contains pertuzumab, trastuzumab, and hyaluronidase-zzxf in a single dose, is approved for people with early-stage HER2-positive breast cancer. It may be given in combination with chemotherapy. It is given by injection under the skin and can be administered either at a treatment center or at home by a health care professional.

  • Ado-trastuzumab emtansine or T-DM1 (Kadcyla). This is approved for the treatment of patients with early-stage breast cancer who have had treatment with trastuzumab and chemotherapy with either paclitaxel or docetaxel followed by surgery, and who had cancer remaining in the breast tissue or lymph nodes removed at the time of surgery. T-DM1 is a combination of trastuzumab linked to a very small amount of a strong chemotherapy. This allows the drug to deliver chemotherapy into the cancer cell while lessening the chemotherapy received by healthy cells. T-DM1 is given by vein every 3 weeks.

  • Neratinib (Nerlynx). Neratinib, in combination with capecitabine chemotherapy, is approved for the treatment of higher-risk HER2-positive, early-stage breast cancer. It is taken for a year, starting after patients have finished 1 year of trastuzumab. Neratinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. It is an oral medication that is given every day for 3 weeks. This drug can cause diarrhea and can also affect the liver.

Combination regimens for stages I to III, HER2-positive breast cancer may include:

  • AC-TH (doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, paclitaxel, trastuzumab)

  • AC-THP (doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, paclitaxel, trastuzumab, pertuzumab)

  • TCHP (docetaxel or paclitaxel, carboplatin, trastuzumab, pertuzumab)

  • TCH (docetaxel or paclitaxel, carboplatin, trastuzumab)

  • TH (paclitaxel, trastuzumab)

Talk with your doctor about possible side effects for a specific medication and how they can be managed.

Bone modifying drugs

Bone modifying drugs block bone destruction and help strengthen bone. In people whose cancer has not spread, bone modifying drugs may be used to help keep the cancer from recurring. Certain types are also used in low doses to prevent and treat osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is the thinning of the bones. ASCO recommends that, with early-stage male breast cancer that has not spread to the bone, patients should not be treated with bone modifying drugs to prevent recurrence, but they could receive these drugs to prevent or treat osteoporosis.

There are 2 types of drugs that block bone destruction:

  • Bisphosphonates. These block the cells that destroy bone, called osteoclasts. Bisphosphonates include the medicines zoledronic acid (Reclast), alendronate (Binosto, Fosamax), and ibandronate (Boniva).

  • Denosumab (Prolia). An osteoclast-targeted therapy called a RANK ligand inhibitor.

Other types of targeted therapy for breast cancer

You may have other targeted therapy options for breast cancer treatment, depending on several factors. The following drugs are used for locally advanced breast cancer.

  • Drugs that target the CDK4/6 protein in breast cancer cells, which may stimulate cancer cell growth. Abemaciclib (Verzenio) may be used in combination with AI therapy in people with high-risk, ER-positive breast cancer in the adjuvant setting.

  • Olaparib (Lynparza). This oral drug may be used for patients with HER2-negative breast cancer at high risk of cancer recurrence and a BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutation. It is a type of drug called a PARP inhibitor, which destroys cancer cells by preventing them from fixing damage.

Learn more about targeted therapy treatment options for people with metastatic breast cancer in the Guide to Metastatic Breast Cancer.

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Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy uses the body's natural defenses to fight cancer by improving your immune system’s ability to attack cancer cells.

  • Pembrolizumab (Keytruda). This is a type of immunotherapy that is approved by the FDA to treat people with high-risk, early-stage, triple-negative breast cancer in combination with chemotherapy before surgery. It is then continued to be given alone following surgery. Common side effects include thyroid problems, skin reactions, flu-like symptoms, diarrhea, and weight changes.

Talk with your doctor about possible side effects for the immunotherapy recommended for you. Learn more about the basics of immunotherapy.

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Physical, emotional, social, and financial effects of cancer

Cancer and its treatment cause physical symptoms and side effects, as well as emotional, social, and financial effects. Managing all of these effects is called palliative and supportive care. It is an important part of your care that is included along with treatments intended to slow, stop, or eliminate the cancer.

Palliative and supportive care focuses on improving how you feel during treatment by managing symptoms and supporting patients and their families with other, non-medical needs. Any person, regardless of age or type and stage of cancer, may receive this type of care. And it often works best when it is started right after a cancer diagnosis. People who receive palliative and supportive care along with treatment for the cancer often have less severe symptoms, better quality of life, and report that they are more satisfied with treatment.

Palliative treatments vary widely and often include medication, nutritional changes, relaxation techniques, emotional and spiritual support, and other therapies. You may also receive palliative treatments, such as chemotherapy, surgery, or radiation therapy, to improve symptoms.

Before treatment begins, talk with your doctor about the goals of each treatment in the recommended treatment plan. You should also talk about the possible side effects of the specific treatment plan and palliative and supportive care options. Many patients also benefit from talking with a social worker and participating in support groups. Ask your doctor about these resources, too.

Cancer care is often expensive, and navigating health insurance can be difficult. Ask your doctor or another member of your health care team about talking with a financial navigator or counselor who may be able to help with your financial concerns.

During treatment, your health care team may ask you to answer questions about your symptoms and side effects and to describe each problem. Be sure to tell the health care team if you are experiencing a problem. This helps the health care team treat any symptoms and side effects as quickly as possible. It can also help prevent more serious problems in the future.

Learn more about the importance of tracking side effects in another part of this guide. Learn more about palliative and supportive care in a separate section of this website.

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Recurrent breast cancer

If the cancer returns after treatment for early-stage disease, it is called recurrent cancer. When breast cancer recurs, it may come back in the following parts of the body:

  • The same place as the original cancer, which is called a local recurrence.

  • The chest wall or lymph nodes under the arm or in the chest, which is called a locoregional recurrence.

  • A location distant from the breast, including organs such as the bones, lungs, liver, and brain. This is called a distant recurrence or a metastatic recurrence.

If a recurrence happens, a new cycle of testing will begin to learn as much as possible about it. Testing may include imaging tests, such as those discussed in the Diagnosis section. In addition, a biopsy may be needed to confirm the breast cancer recurrence and learn about the features of the cancer.

After this testing is done, you and your doctor will talk about the treatment options. The treatment plan may include some of the treatments described above, such as surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and hormonal therapy, but they may be used in a different combination or at a different pace. The treatment options for recurrent breast cancer depend on the following factors:

  • Previous treatment(s) for the original cancer

  • Time since the original diagnosis

  • Location of the recurrence

  • Characteristics of the tumor, such as ER, PR, and HER2 status

A local recurrence may be considered curable with further treatment. A metastatic (distant) recurrence is generally considered incurable, but it is treatable. Some patients live for years after a metastatic recurrence of breast cancer.

Whichever treatment plan you choose, palliative and supportive care will be important for relieving symptoms and side effects. Your doctor may suggest clinical trials that are studying new ways to treat recurrent breast cancer.

People with recurrent breast cancer sometimes experience emotions such as disbelief or fear. You are encouraged to talk with your health care team about these feelings and ask about support services to help you cope. Learn more about dealing with cancer recurrence.

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The next section in this guide is About Clinical Trials. It offers more information about research studies that are focused on finding better ways to care for people with cancer. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - About Clinical Trials

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will learn more about clinical trials, which are the main way that new medical approaches are studied to see how well they work. Use the menu to see other pages.

What are clinical trials?

Researchers are always looking for better ways to care for people with breast cancer. To make scientific advances, doctors create research studies involving volunteers, called clinical trials. Every drug that is now approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was tested in clinical trials.

Clinical trials are used for all types and stages of breast cancer. Many focus on new treatments to learn if a new treatment is safe, effective, and possibly better than the existing treatments. These types of studies evaluate new drugs, different combinations of treatments, new approaches to radiation therapy or surgery, and new methods of treatment.

People who participate in clinical trials can be some of the first to get a treatment before it is available to the public. However, there are some risks with a clinical trial, including possible side effects and the chance that the new treatment may not work. People are encouraged to talk with their health care team about the pros and cons of joining a specific study.

Some clinical trials study new ways to relieve symptoms and side effects during treatment. Others study ways to manage the late effects that may happen a long time after treatment. Talk with your doctor about clinical trials for symptoms and side effects.

Deciding to join a clinical trial

People decide to participate in clinical trials for many reasons. For some, a clinical trial is the best treatment option available. Because standard treatments are not perfect, patients are often willing to face the added uncertainty of a clinical trial in the hope of a better result. Others volunteer for clinical trials because they know that these studies are a way to contribute to the progress in treating breast cancer. Even if they do not benefit directly from the clinical trial, their participation may benefit future people with breast cancer.

Insurance coverage and the costs of clinical trials differ by location and by study. In some programs, some of the expenses from participating in the clinical trial are reimbursed. In others, they are not. It is important to talk with the research team and your insurance company first to learn if and how your treatment in a clinical trial will be covered. Learn more about health insurance coverage of clinical trials.

Sometimes people have concerns that, in a clinical trial, they may receive no treatment by being given a placebo or a “sugar pill.” When used in cancer clinical trials, placebos are usually combined with standard treatment, not given alone. Study participants will always be told when a placebo is used in a study. Find out more about placebos in cancer clinical trials.

Patient safety and informed consent

To join a clinical trial, people must participate in a process known as informed consent, which is led by a doctor and research team. During informed consent, the doctor should:

  • Describe all of the treatment options so that the person understands how the new treatment differs from the standard treatment.

  • List all of the risks of the new treatment, which may or may not be different from the risks of standard treatment.

  • Explain what will be required of each person to participate in the clinical trial, including the number of health care provider visits, tests, and the schedule of treatment.

  • Describe the purposes of the clinical trial and what researchers are trying to learn.

Clinical trials also have certain rules called “eligibility criteria” that help structure the research and keep patients safe. You and the research team will carefully review these criteria together. Many clinical trials allow men and women to enroll, but there are some breast cancer clinical trials that have eligibility criteria restricting a clinical trial to women only. It is important to discuss with your doctor about the eligibility criteria for a specific clinical trial. You will need to meet all of the eligibility criteria in order to participate in a clinical trial. Learn more about eligibility criteria in clinical trials.

People who participate in a clinical trial may stop participating at any time for personal or medical reasons, including if the new treatment is not working or if there are serious side effects. Clinical trials are also closely monitored by experts who watch for any problems with each study. It is important that people participating in a clinical trial talk with their doctor and researchers about who will be providing their treatment and care during the clinical trial, after the clinical trial ends, and/or if they choose to leave the clinical trial before it ends.

Finding a clinical trial

Research through clinical trials is ongoing for all types of cancer. For specific topics being studied for breast cancer, learn more in the Latest Research section.

Cancer.Net offers more information about cancer clinical trials in other areas of the website, including a complete section on clinical trials and places to search for clinical trials for a specific type of cancer.

There are many resources and services to help you search for clinical trials for male breast cancer, including the following services. Please note that these links will take you to separate, independent websites:

  • ClinicalTrials.gov. This U.S. government database lists publicly and privately supported clinical trials.

  • World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform. The WHO coordinates health matters within the United Nations. This search portal gathers clinical trial information from many countries’ registries.

Read more about the basics of clinical trials matching services.

PRE-ACT, Preparatory Education About Clinical Trials

In addition, you can find a free video-based educational program about cancer clinical trials located in another section of this website.

The next section in this guide is Latest Research. It explains areas of scientific research for male breast cancer. Use the menu to choose another section to continue reading this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Latest Research

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will read about the scientific research being done to learn more about male breast cancer and how to treat it. Use the menu to see other pages.

Doctors are working to learn more about male breast cancer, ways to prevent it, how to best treat it, and how to provide the best care to people diagnosed with this disease. The following areas of research may include new options for patients through clinical trials. Always talk with your doctor about the best diagnostic and treatment options for you.

  • Improving surgical options. New surgical methods that save tissue or prevent scarring are being tested in clinical trials.

  • Radiation therapy advances. Testing improved radiation therapy to lower the risk of side effects.

  • New medications and drug combinations. Evaluating new systemic therapies and combinations of therapies to treat male breast cancer, including chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy.

  • Palliative and supportive care. Finding better ways of reducing symptoms and side effects of current breast cancer treatments to improve comfort and quality of life for patients.

Looking for More About the Latest Research?

If you would like more information about the latest areas of research in male breast cancer, explore these related items that take you outside of this guide:

The next section in this guide is Coping with Treatment. It offers some guidance on how to cope with the physical, emotional, social, and financial changes that cancer and its treatment can bring. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Coping with Treatment

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will learn more about coping with the physical, emotional, social, and financial effects of cancer and its treatment. Use the menu to see other pages.

Every cancer treatment can cause side effects or changes to your body and how you feel. For many reasons, people do not experience the same side effects even when they are given the same treatment for the same type of cancer. This can make it hard to predict how you will feel during treatment.

READ MORE BELOW:

As you prepare to start cancer treatment, it is normal to fear treatment-related side effects. It may help to know that your health care team will work to prevent and relieve side effects. This part of cancer treatment is called palliative and supportive care. It is an important part of your treatment plan, regardless of your age or the stage of disease.

Coping with physical side effects

Common physical side effects from each treatment option for breast cancer are described in the Types of Treatment section. Learn more about side effects of cancer and its treatment, along with ways to prevent or control them. Changes to your physical health depend on several factors, including the cancer’s stage, the length and dose of treatment, and your general health.

Talk with your health care team regularly about how you are feeling. It is important to let them know about any new side effects or changes in existing side effects. If they know how you are feeling, they can find ways to relieve or manage your side effects to help you feel more comfortable and potentially keep any side effects from worsening.

You may find it helpful to keep track of your side effects so it is easier to talk about any changes with your health care team. Learn more about why tracking side effects is helpful.

Sometimes, side effects can last after treatment ends. Doctors call these long-term side effects. Side effects that occur months or years after treatment are called late effects. Treating long-term side effects and late effects is an important part of survivorship care. Learn more by reading the Follow-Up Care and Monitoring section of this guide or talking with your doctor.

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Coping with emotional and social effects

You can have emotional and social effects after a cancer diagnosis. This may include dealing with a variety of emotions, such as sadness, anxiety, fear, or anger, or managing stress. Sometimes, people find it difficult to express how they feel to their loved ones. Some have found that talking to an oncology social worker, counselor, or member of the clergy can help them develop more effective ways of coping and talking about cancer.

You can also find coping strategies for emotional and social effects in a separate section of this website. This section includes many resources for finding support and information to meet your needs.

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Coping with the costs of cancer care

Cancer treatment can be expensive. It may be a source of stress and anxiety for people with cancer and their families. In addition to treatment costs, many people find they have extra, unplanned expenses related to their care. For some people, the high cost of medical care stops them from following or completing their cancer treatment plan. This can put their health at risk and may lead to higher costs in the future. Patients and their families are encouraged to talk about financial concerns with a member of their health care team. Learn more about managing financial considerations in a separate part of this website.

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Coping with barriers to care

Some groups of people experience different rates of new cancer cases and experience different outcomes from their cancer diagnosis. These differences are called “cancer disparities.” Disparities are caused in part by real-world barriers to quality medical care and social determinants of health, such as where a person lives and whether they have access to food and health care. Cancer disparities more often negatively affect racial and ethnic minorities, people with fewer financial resources, sexual and gender minorities (LGBTQ+), adolescent and young adult populations, adults older than 65, and people who live in rural areas or other underserved communities.

If you are having difficulty getting the care you need, talk with a member of your health care team or explore other resources that help support medically underserved people.

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Talking with your health care team about side effects

Before starting treatment, talk with your doctor about possible side effects. Ask:

  • Which side effects are most likely?

  • When are they likely to happen?

  • What can we do to prevent or relieve them?

  • When and who should I call about side effects?

Be sure to tell your health care team about any side effects that happen during treatment and afterward, too. Tell them even if you do not think the side effects are serious. This discussion should include physical, emotional, social, and financial effects of cancer.

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Caring for a loved one with male breast cancer

Family members and friends often play an important role in taking care of a person with cancer. This is called being a caregiver. Caregivers can provide physical, practical, and emotional support to the patient, even if they live far away. Being a caregiver can also be stressful and emotionally challenging. One of the most important tasks for caregivers is caring for themselves.

Caregivers may have a range of responsibilities on a daily or as-needed basis, including:

  • Providing support and encouragement

  • Talking with the health care team

  • Giving medications

  • Helping manage symptoms and side effects

  • Coordinating medical appointments

  • Providing a ride to and from appointments

  • Assisting with meals

  • Helping with household chores

  • Handling insurance and billing issues

A caregiving plan can help caregivers stay organized and help identify opportunities to delegate tasks to others. It may be helpful to ask the health care team how much care will be needed at home and with daily tasks during and after treatment. Use this 1-page fact sheet to help make a caregiving action plan. This free fact sheet is available as a PDF, so it is easy to print.

Learn more about caregiving or read the ASCO Answers Guide to Caring for a Loved One With Cancer in English or Spanish.

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Cancer.Net Mobile app symptom tracker

Looking for More on How to Track Side Effects?

Cancer.Net offers several resources to help you keep track of your symptoms and side effects. Please note that these links will take you to other sections of Cancer.Net:

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The next section in this guide is Follow-Up Care and Monitoring. It explains the importance of checkups after cancer treatment is finished. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Follow-Up Care and Monitoring

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will read about your medical care after breast cancer treatment is completed and why this follow-up care is important. Use the menu to see other pages.

Care for people diagnosed with cancer does not end when active treatment has finished. Your health care team will continue to check that the cancer has not come back, manage any side effects, and monitor your overall health. This is called follow-up care.

Your follow-up care may include regular physical examinations, medical tests, or both. Doctors want to keep track of your recovery in the months and years ahead. After treatment for male breast cancer, the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) recommends that an annual mammogram of the affected breast should be offered to people with a history of male breast cancer treated with lumpectomy, if technically possible, regardless of their genetic predisposition. ASCO also recommends that an annual mammogram of the opposite side breast may be offered to patients with a history of male breast cancer and a predisposing genetic mutation that increases the risk of breast cancer. Screening with breast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is not recommended.

Cancer rehabilitation may be recommended, and this could mean any of a wide range of services, such as physical therapy, occupational therapy, career counseling, pain management, nutritional planning, and/or emotional counseling. The goal of rehabilitation is to help people regain control over many aspects of their lives and remain as independent as possible. Learn more about cancer rehabilitation.

In some instances, patients may be able to visit survivorship clinics that specialize in the post-treatment needs of people diagnosed with breast cancer.

Learn more about the importance of follow-up care.

Watching for recurrence

One goal of follow-up care is to check for a recurrence, which means that the cancer has come back. Cancer recurs because small areas of cancer cells may remain undetected in the body. Over time, these cells may increase in number until they show up on test results or cause signs or symptoms.

During follow-up care, a doctor familiar with your medical history can give you personalized information about your risk of recurrence. Understanding your risk of recurrence and the treatment options for a recurrence may help you feel more prepared if the cancer does return. Learn more about coping with the fear of recurrence.

Breast cancer can come back in the breast or other areas of the body. Generally, a recurrence is found when a person has new symptoms or an abnormal finding on physical examination. The symptoms depend on where the cancer has recurred and may include:

  • A lump under the arm or along the chest wall

  • Bone pain or fractures

  • Chest pain

  • Headaches, seizures, or dizziness

  • Chronic coughing, shortness of breath, or trouble breathing

  • Abdominal pain or a yellowing of the skin and eyes, which is called jaundice

  • Extreme tiredness

  • Feeling generally unwell

Your doctor will ask specific questions about your health at follow-up visits. It’s important to share how you are feeling at those visits and ask any questions you may have about your health or follow-up care plan.

The anticipation before having a follow-up visit or waiting for test results may add stress to you or a family member. Learn more about how to cope with this type of stress.

Managing long-term and late side effects

Most people expect to have side effects when receiving treatment. However, it is often surprising to survivors that some side effects may linger beyond the treatment period. These are called long-term side effects. Other side effects called late effects may develop months or even years after treatment has ended. Long-term and late effects can include both physical and emotional changes.

Talk with your doctor about your risk of developing such side effects based on your diagnosis, your individual treatment plan, and your overall health. If you had a treatment known to cause specific late effects, you may have certain physical examinations, scans, or blood tests to help find and manage them.

  • Long-term effects of surgery. After surgery for breast cancer, the chest may be scarred and have a different appearance than before surgery. If lymph nodes were removed as part of the surgery or affected during treatment, swelling called lymphedema may occur in the arm or chest wall, even many years after treatment. This is a life-long risk for survivors.

  • Long-term effects of radiation therapy. Some patients experience breathlessness, a dry cough, and/or chest pain 2 to 3 months after finishing radiation therapy. This is because the treatment can cause swelling and a hardening or thickening of the lungs, called fibrosis. These symptoms may seem similar to the symptoms of pneumonia, but they do not go away with antibiotics. The symptoms can be treated with medications called steroids. Most patients fully recover with treatment. Talk with your doctor if you develop any new symptoms after radiation therapy or if the side effects are not going away.

  • Long-term effects of trastuzumab and/or chemotherapy. Patients who received trastuzumab or certain types of chemotherapy called anthracyclines may be at risk of heart problems. Talk with your doctor about the best ways to check for heart problems. Patients treated with chemotherapy also have a risk of other long-term side effects, such as fatigue, chemobrain, permanent numbness and tingling of the fingers and toes, and weight gain.

  • Long-term effects of hormonal therapy. Patients who take hormonal therapy for many years can have symptoms such as hot flashes and mood changes. In addition, aromatase inhibitors (AIs) can sometimes cause aches, pains, and stiffness during treatment. Some treatments can cause bone weakness and increase the risk of developing a bone fracture. Talk with your doctor about what you can do to manage these symptoms if you experience them.

In addition, patients recovering from breast cancer have other side effects that may continue after treatment. Learn about ways of coping with cancer-related fatigue, a changes in cognitive function that are sometimes called "chemobrain," and other late effects of cancer treatment.

Keeping personal health records

You and your doctor should work together to develop a personalized follow-up care plan. Be sure to discuss any concerns you have about your future physical or emotional health. ASCO offers forms to help keep track of the cancer treatment you received and develop a survivorship care plan when treatment is completed.

This is also a good time to talk with your doctor about who will lead your follow-up care. Some survivors continue to see their oncologist, while others transition back to the care of their primary care doctor or another health care professional. This decision depends on several factors, including the type and stage of cancer, treatments received, side effects, health insurance rules, and your personal preferences.

If a doctor who was not directly involved in your cancer care will lead your follow-up care, be sure to share your cancer treatment summary and survivorship care plan forms with them and with all future health care providers. Details about your cancer treatment are very valuable to the health care professionals who will care for you throughout your lifetime.

The next section in this guide is Survivorship. It describes how to cope with challenges in everyday life after a cancer diagnosis. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Survivorship

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will read about how to cope with challenges in everyday life after a breast cancer diagnosis. Use the menu to see other pages.

What is survivorship?

The word “survivorship” is complicated because it means different things to different people. Common definitions include:

  • Having no signs of cancer after finishing treatment.

  • Living with, through, and beyond cancer. According to this definition, cancer survivorship begins at diagnosis and continues during treatment and through the rest of a person’s life.

For some, the term “survivorship” itself does not feel right, and they may prefer to use different language to describe and define their experience. Sometimes long-term treatment will be used for months or years to manage or control cancer. Living with cancer indefinitely is not easy, and the health care team can help you manage the challenges that come with it. Everyone has to find their own path to name and navigate the changes and challenges that are the results of their cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Survivors may experience a mixture of feelings, including joy, concern, relief, guilt, and fear. Some people say they appreciate life more after a cancer diagnosis and have gained a greater acceptance of themselves. Some people may prefer to put the experience behind them and feel that their lives have not changed in a major way. Others become very anxious about their health and uncertain about coping with everyday life. Feelings of fear and anxiety may still occur as time passes, but these emotions should not be a constant part of your daily life. If they persist, be sure to talk with a member of your health care team.

Survivors may feel some stress when their frequent visits to the health care team end after completing treatment. Often, relationships built with the cancer care team provide a sense of security during treatment, and people miss this source of support. This may be especially true when new worries and challenges surface over time, such as any late effects of treatment, emotional challenges including fear of recurrence, sexual health and fertility concerns, and financial and workplace issues.

Every survivor has individual concerns and challenges. With any challenge, a good first step is being able to recognize your fears and talk about them. Effective coping requires:

  • Understanding the challenge you are facing

  • Thinking through solutions

  • Asking for and allowing the support of others

  • Feeling comfortable with the course of action you choose

Many survivors find it helpful to join an in-person support group or an online community of survivors. This allows you to talk with people who have had similar first-hand experiences. Other options for finding support include talking with a friend or member of your health care team, individual counseling, or asking for assistance at the learning resource center of the place where you received treatment.

A new perspective on your health

For many people, survivorship serves as a strong motivator to make lifestyle changes.

People recovering from breast cancer are encouraged to follow established guidelines for good health, such as not smoking, limiting alcohol, eating well, exercising regularly, and managing stress. Regular physical activity can help rebuild your strength and energy level. Your health care team can help you create an appropriate exercise plan based upon your needs, physical abilities, and fitness level. Many people find it easier to stick with an exercise program with a partner. Consider asking your spouse/partner or a friend to join you. Learn more about making healthy lifestyle choices.

It is important to have recommended medical checkups and tests (see Follow-Up Care and Monitoring) to take care of your health.

Talk with your health care team to develop a survivorship care plan that is best for your needs.

Changing role of caregivers

Family members and friends may also go through periods of transition. A caregiver plays a very important role in supporting a person diagnosed with cancer, providing physical, emotional, and practical care on a daily or as-needed basis. Many caregivers become focused on providing this support, especially if the treatment period lasts for many months or longer.

However, as treatment is completed, the caregiver's role often changes. Eventually, the need for caregiving related to the cancer diagnosis will become much less or come to an end. Caregivers can learn more about adjusting to life after caregiving.

Looking for More Survivorship Resources?

For more information about cancer survivorship, explore these related items. Please note that these links will take you to other sections of Cancer.Net:

  • ASCO Answers Guide to Cancer Survivorship: Get this 48-page booklet that helps people transition into life after treatment. It includes blank treatment summary and survivorship care plan forms. The free booklet is available as a PDF, so it is easy to print.

  • Survivorship Resources: Cancer.Net offers information and resources to help survivors cope, including specific sections for children, teens and young adults, and people over age 65. There is also a main section on survivorship for people of all ages.

The next section offers Questions to Ask the Health Care Team to help start conversations with your cancer care team. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Questions to Ask the Health Care Team

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will find some questions to ask your doctor or other members of the health care team, to help you better understand your diagnosis, treatment plan, and overall care. Use the menu to see other pages.

Cancer.Net Mobile app question tracker

Talking often with the health care team is important to make informed decisions about your health care. These suggested questions are a starting point to help you learn more about your cancer care and treatment. You are also encouraged to ask additional questions that are important to you. You may want to print this list and bring it to your next appointment, or download Cancer.Net’s free mobile app for a digital list and other interactive tools to manage your care. It may also be helpful to ask a family member or friend to come with you to appointments to help take notes.

Questions to ask after getting a diagnosis

  • What type of breast cancer do I have?

  • Can you explain my pathology report (laboratory test results) to me?

  • What stage is the breast cancer? What does this mean?

  • What is my prognosis?

  • Should I see a genetic counselor?

Questions to ask about choosing a treatment and managing side effects

  • What are my treatment options?

  • What types of research are being done for male breast cancer in clinical trials? Do clinical trials offer additional treatment options for me?

  • What treatment plan do you recommend? Why?

  • What is the goal of each treatment? Is it to eliminate the cancer, help me feel better, or both?

  • Who will be part of my health care team, and what does each member do?

  • Who will be leading my overall treatment?

  • What are the possible side effects of this treatment, both in the short term and the long term?

  • How will this treatment affect my daily life? Will I be able to work, exercise, and perform my usual activities?

  • Could this treatment affect my sex life? If so, how and for how long?

  • Could this treatment affect my ability to have children? If so, should I talk with a fertility specialist before cancer treatment begins?

  • If I’m worried about managing the costs of cancer care, who can help me?

  • What support services are available to me? Are there support services specifically for people with breast cancer? What about support for my family?

  • If I have questions or problems, who should I call?

Questions to ask about having surgery

  • What type of surgery will I have? Will lymph nodes be removed?

  • How long will the operation take?

  • How long will I be in the hospital?

  • Can you describe what my recovery from surgery will be like?

  • Who should I contact about any side effects I experience? And how soon?

  • What are the possible long-term effects of having this surgery?

Questions to ask about having radiation therapy

  • What type of treatment is recommended?

  • What is the goal of this treatment?

  • How long will it take to give this treatment?

  • What side effects can I expect during treatment?

  • Who should I contact about any side effects I experience? And how soon?

  • What are the possible long-term or late effects of having this treatment?

  • What can be done to prevent or relieve the side effects?

Questions to ask about having therapies using medication

  • What type of treatment is recommended?

  • What is the goal of this treatment?

  • How long will it take to give this treatment?

  • Will I receive this treatment at a hospital or clinic? Or will I take it at home?

  • What side effects can I expect during treatment?

  • Who should I contact about any side effects I experience? And how soon?

  • What are the possible long-term or late effects of having this treatment?

  • What can be done to prevent or relieve the side effects?

Questions to ask about planning follow-up care

  • What is the chance that the cancer will come back? Should I watch for specific signs or symptoms?

  • What long-term side effects or late effects are possible based on the cancer treatment I received?

  • What follow-up tests will I need, and how often will those tests be needed?

  • How do I get a treatment summary and survivorship care plan to keep in my personal records?

  • When should I return to my primary care doctor for regular medical care?

  • Who will be leading my follow-up care?

  • What survivorship support services are available to me? To my family?

The next section in this guide is Additional Resources. It offers more resources on this website that may be helpful to you. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.

Breast Cancer, Male - Additional Resources

Approved by the Cancer.Net Editorial Board, 12/2022

ON THIS PAGE: You will find some helpful links to other areas of Cancer.Net that provide information about cancer care and treatment. This is the final page of Cancer.Net’s Guide to Male Breast Cancer. Use the menu to go back and see other pages.

Cancer.Net includes many other sections about the medical and emotional aspects of cancer for the person diagnosed and their family members and friends. This website is meant to be a resource for you and your loved ones from the time of diagnosis, through treatment, and beyond.

Here are a few links to help you explore other parts of Cancer.Net:

This is the end of Cancer.Net’s Guide to Male Breast Cancer. Use the menu to choose a different section to read in this guide.