Many cancer survivors have a risk of developing late effects from cancer treatment. A late effect is a side effect that occurs more than five years after a diagnosis of cancer because of the related treatments, such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery. When or if a person develops a late effect and the type of late effects that may develop vary from person to person. Treatment of late effects is an important part of cancer care because cancer survivors are living longer after cancer treatment than in the past.

Types of late effects

Because late effects are a result of treatment, nearly any treatment may cause late effects. Some of the more common late effects are described below. If you are concerned about a particular late effect, please talk with your doctor.

Problems from surgery. Different surgical procedures may cause late effects. The following are some examples of late effects from surgery for cancer. Talk with your surgeon beforehand about the short-term side effects and late effects that may occur from your specific surgery.

• Survivors of Hodgkin lymphoma, especially those diagnosed before 1988, often had their spleens removed and are at risk for serious infections.
  
  
• Survivors of cancers of the bone and soft tissue may experience physical and psychological effects of losing all or part of a limb, such as phantom limb pain (feeling pain in the limb that was removed).
  
  
• Survivors who have had surgery to remove lymph nodes (or radiation therapy to lymph nodes) may develop lymphedema, an abnormal buildup of fluid (lymph fluid) that causes swelling, usually in the arms and legs. Learn more about lymphedema after breast cancer treatment and lymphedema in the legs.
  
  
• Men who had lymph nodes near the kidney, bladder, testicles, or rectum removed may have a risk of infertility (the inability to father a child).

Heart problems. Heart problems in cancer survivors are most often caused by radiation therapy to the chest and/or chemotherapy (especially doxorubicin [Adriamycin] and cyclophosphamide [Cytoxan, Clafen, Neosar]). People age 65 or older and those who received higher doses of chemotherapy have a higher risk of heart problems. Some survivors may experience the following heart problems:

• Inflammation of the heart muscle
  
  
• Congestive heart failure (a condition where the heart has difficulty pumping blood)
  
  
• Heart disease.

Talk with your doctor about being evaluated regularly for heart damage, since there may be no symptoms or signs. Screening tests to detect heart damage include physical examinations and other tests used to diagnose heart function, such as an electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG) and echocardiography (a test using sound waves to evaluate the heart). All survivors, especially those treated for Hodgkin disease as children, should tell their doctor if they have chest pain, since this may be a symptom of heart problems.

Lung problems. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy to the chest may cause injury to the lungs. Cancer survivors who received combination treatment of chemotherapy and radiation therapy (for example, a person who has received this combination treatment during a bone marrow transplant) may have a higher risk of lung damage. Some of the drugs that may cause lung damage include bleomycin (Blenoxane), carmustine (Becenum, BiCNU, Carmubris), prednisone (multiple brand names), dexamethasone (multiple brand names), and methotrexate (multiple brand names). The late effects may include the following

• A change in how the lung functions
  
  
• Thickening of the lining of the lungs
  
  
• Inflammation of the lungs
  
  
• Difficulty breathing.

People with a history of lung disease and older people may have additional lung problems.

Endocrine (hormone) system problems. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy may cause changes to hormone levels. Chemotherapy may cause the following late effects

• Damage to a woman's ovaries, which may result in hot flashes, sexual dysfunction, osteoporosis (thinning of the bones), and early menopause
  
  
• Infertility (inability to conceive a child or maintain a pregnancy) for both men and women

Radiation therapy to the head and/or neck may cause the following late effects:

• Low levels of specific hormones caused by damage to hormone producing glands in the head
  
  
• Changes to how the thyroid gland works (this may not cause any symptoms)

Hormone levels can be checked with blood tests, and these should be done regularly for cancer survivors who are at risk. Sometimes, medications can be used to restore hormone levels. Learn more about fertility and cancer treatment, early menopause, and hormonal problems for men.

Bone, joint, and soft tissue problems. Osteoporosis is the most common late effect of cancer treatment and occurs more frequently in cancer survivors than in the general U.S. population. Risk factors for osteoporosis include the following:

• Chemotherapy
  
  
• Steroid medications
  
  
• Hormone therapy
  
  
• Low levels of physical activity

Cancer survivors at risk for bone and joint problems, especially survivors of breast and prostate cancers and childhood leukemia, can lower their risk by not smoking, eating foods rich in calcium, participating in regular physical activity, and limiting the amount of alcohol they drink.

Brain, spinal cord, and nerve problems. Some of these include the following:

• Hearing loss from high doses of chemotherapy, such as cisplatin (Platinol)
  
  
• Stroke, from radiation therapy for a brain tumor because the doses of radiation are much higher

Regular physical examinations, hearing tests, and x-rays should be done after cancer treatment ends to check for these late effects.

Learning, memory, and attention difficulties. Adults and children may have these problems, which are caused by chemotherapy and high doses of radiation therapy to the head. Although the following late effects have been studied more extensively in children, adult cancer survivors can also be at risk.

• Learning disorders
  
  
• Lower attention spans
  
  
• Problems with memory

Cancer survivors who experience any of these problems should talk with their doctor. Learn more about cognitive (thought process) problems and chemobrain.

Dental and vision problems. Cancer survivors should have regular check-ups with a dentist and an ophthalmologist (doctor who specializes in treating conditions of the eye). Cancer survivors may have the following dental and vision problems depending on the treatments they received.

• Chemotherapy may affect tooth enamel and increase the risk of long-term dental problems.
  
  
• High-dose radiation therapy given to the head and neck area can change tooth development, cause gum disease, and decrease saliva production, resulting in a dry mouth.
  
  
• Steroid medications may increase the risk of eye problems, such as cataracts (clouding of the eye that affects vision).

Digestive problems. Chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery can cause problems with the digestive tract. A nutritionist or dietitian may help people who are not getting enough nutrients or are underweight.

• Chemotherapy, such as methotrexate, thioguanine (Thioguanine Tabloid) can be harmful to the liver.
  
  
• Surgery and/or radiation therapy to the pelvis can lead to tissue scarring, chronic (long-term) pain, and intestinal problems.
  
  
• Some survivors may have chronic diarrhea because their body can no longer absorb nutrients.

Emotional difficulties. Cancer survivors often experience a variety of emotions, including depression and anxiety, fear of recurrence, anger, and isolation. Often, the issues that may cause the most anxiety for cancer survivors include:

• Coping with interpersonal relationships
  
  
• Changes to body image
  
  
• Sexuality
  
  
• Returning to the workplace
  
  
• Obtaining health insurance

Cancer survivors and caregivers, family and friends may also experience post-traumatic stress disorder. Some survivors struggle with the psychological effects of the cancer experience, and others say that they have a renewed outlook on life because of the cancer experience.

Secondary Cancers. A secondary cancer is a different type of cancer that appears after the original cancer diagnosis. According to the National Cancer Institute (NCI), cancer survivors have a 14% higher risk of developing a new cancer. The development of a secondary cancer is thought to be a result of previous exposure to chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Talk with your doctor about how to lower the risk of a secondary cancer and how to watch for any signs or symptoms.

Fatigue. One-third of all cancer survivors report fatigue as a long-term effect of cancer treatment. Fatigue may be caused by the effects of treatment or may have no definitive cause. Some causes of fatigue are listed below,

• Anemia
  
  
• Pain
  
  
• Sluggish thyroid gland
  
  
• Lack of physical strength
  
  
• Depression

Adding rest periods in your day or delegating household chores to others may help you cope with fatigue. Learn more about coping with cancer-related fatigue.

Screening for late effects

Much of what is known about late effects is based on long-term studies of survivors of childhood cancer. These recommendations for survivors of childhood, adolescent, and young adults cancers are summarized at www.survivorshipguidelines.org. It is important to talk with your doctor about appropriate screening tests based on your type of cancer and cancer treatment. Some examples of screening tests are:

• Yearly thyroid examination for people who have had radiation therapy to the head, neck, or throat
  
  
• Testing the function of the lung (such as how much air your lungs can hold and how quickly air moves in and out of your lung) for people who received bleomycin
  
  
• Regular echocardiograms for people who received radiation therapy to the chest and/or who received high doses of a class of drugs called anthracyclines, such as doxorubicin
  
  
• Regular mammography (x-rays of the breast) starting at an early age for those who had radiation therapy to the chest at a young age
  
  
• Imaging tests (such as x-rays or computed tomography [CT] scans) and/or blood tests to detect a second cancer

Long-term follow-up care

After cancer treatment has been completed, survivors often describe feelings ranging from relief to anxiety and fear. During treatment, people have a feeling of actively fighting the cancer, and the relationships made with the oncology team provided a sense of support and security. After treatment ends, the biggest question for cancer survivors is often what to do next. Learn more about finishing treatment.

The most important part of a survivor's life now becomes follow-up care. Having access to support is a vital part of regaining as normal a lifestyle as possible. Many cancer survivors choose to continue follow-up care with their oncologist, and others may return to their primary care doctor or family doctor. If you are returning to your primary care doctor, you should be given a detailed summary of all previous treatments and the risk for developing late effects from your oncologist. This information is important to your primary doctor, who may not have been extensively involved in your cancer treatment. It gives him or her the information necessary to plan your follow-up care. This summary should include:

• Date of diagnosis
  
  
• The type of cancer, including tissue/cell type, stage, and grade (if known)
  
  
• Dates of treatment and a list of treatments received, including the type of treatment/drug name, dose of drug or radiation, and number of treatment cycles
  
  
• Any related medical findings during the course of treatment (such as the side effects you experienced)
  
  
• The results of any diagnostic tests
  
  
• A schedule of required tests needed to evaluate your health after cancer treatment
  
  
• Risks for developing late effects of cancer treatment

Find and download a cancer treatment summary plan and a survivorship care plan. Keep a copy of this information for your own records, in case you need to share the information with another health care provider. If late effects do develop, you may need to be referred to specialists who are familiar with such long-term effects.

Questions to ask the doctor

Here are some questions that may be useful when you talk with your doctor about your follow-up care:

• Do you have experience treating cancer survivors?
  
  
• How often should I return for a follow-up visit?
  
  
• What tests will I need when I go for my follow-up visits?
  
  
• What screening tests do you recommend, given the treatment I had?
  
  
• How long will I need to continue to go for screening tests?
  
  
• Do I need to take any special medications or follow a special diet?
  
  
• What signs or symptoms should I be looking for after my cancer treatment is completed? What should I do if I notice one of these symptoms?
  
  
• Do I need to be referred to a specialist?
  
  
• What can I do to lower my risk of the cancer coming back?

More Information

Emotional and Physical Matters

Relationships and Cancer

Managing Side Effects

The Benefits of Counseling

How to Find a Counselor

Survivorship

Additional Resources

Livestrong: After effects of Cancer Treatment

Livestrong: Second Cancers

Last Updated: February 03, 2010